active travel and mental health

Healthy Cities Toolkit

Global Centre on Healthcare and Urbanisation, Kellogg College

Active travel

Moderate positive impact based on uncertain evidence with low resource implications

Cite as Heneghan C, Onakpoya I. Active Transport. Oxford Healthy Cities Toolkit

• Access data

Description

Active travel, also described as active transport or transportation, is defined as making journeys that involve a level of physical exercise [UK Dept for Transport, 2022 ].

It can include walking, cycling, skating or skateboarding (to name a few) and is highly favourable when commuting to work or school. In the literature, active travel was measured using self-reported instruments, surveys or questionnaires, interviews or focus groups, accelerometry, digital tracking devices or GPS.

Fourteen reviews considered the health impacts of active transport involving nearly 500 primary studies. Overall, active travel had a positive effect on increasing rates of physical activity, reducing non-communicable diseases, and improving mental health.

Designing community environments that make active travel convenient, safe, attractive, cost-effective, and environmentally beneficial is likely to produce the greatest impact.

The included reviews represented the ages of the general population, with one review focusing on children and young people [Audrey 2015 ], and two reviews on older people [ Barnett 2017 ; Graham 2020 ].

Three reviews restricted their geographical scope, with one review from the UK [ Graham 2020 ]’ Korea [ Kim 2019 ] and Latin America [ Gomez 2015 ].

Most (85%) reviews assessed rates of physical activity and examined the relationship of the urban environment in promoting active transport. Factors that supported active travel include:

• Adequate infrastructure (e.g. cycle lanes) and connection/continuity of cyclable and walkable surfaces [ de Carvalho 2012 ; Gomez 2015 ; Mölenberg 2019 ; Rachele 2019 ; Sallis 2015 ; Smith 2017 ; Stankov 2020 ]
• Smaller and calmer car traffic, offering greater safety for cyclists and pedestrians [ de Carvalho 2012 ; Gomez 2015 ]
• Short distances of trips [de Carvalho 2012 ; Gomez 2015 ; Sallis 2015 ; Stankov 2020 ]
• Aesthetics of the streets and facilities (cleanliness, low noise, presence of trees/greenery) [ de Carvalho 2012 ; Rachele 2019 ; Sallis 2015 ]
• Mixed land use, combining residential, commercial, and leisure spaces and facilities within a concentrated area [ Gomez 2015 ; Kim 2019 ; Rachele 2019 ; Sallis 2015 ]
• The financial cost and economic benefits [ de Carvalho 2012 ; Sallis 2015 ]
• The environment and sustainable mobility [ de Carvalho 2012 ; Gomez 2015 ; Sallis 2015 ]

Factors that discouraged cycling were related to geography (e.g. weather or terrain) and individual factors (e.g. age, sex, education levels). The lack of connectivity of cycling routes, zoning and land use distribution, and low petrol prices encouraged individuals to use cars. [ de Carvalho 2012 ]

Factors that both encouraged and discouraged active travel were dependent on socio-economic conditions and economic development, which drove the adoption of public policies. [de Carvalho 2012 ]. For example, in Australia, lower economic status was a factor that reduced the use of bicycles by children attending schools, whereas, in Brazil, lower socio-economic profiles were linked to higher rates of active travel when commuting to schools. 

For children and young people, multi-component and single-component interventions deployed at schools increased students’ activity levels and reduced parental driving [ Audrey 2015 ]. Factors such as distance from home to school, infrastructure improvements (e.g. cycle lanes, calming traffic schemes), education, and non-car use at baseline influenced active travel. 

For older adults, neighbourhood walkability, access to destinations and services and recreational facilities, crime/personal safety, residential density, walk-friendly infrastructure, street lighting, the presence of greenery and aesthetically pleasing scenery were positively associated with physical activity and walking. [ Barnett 2017 ; Rachele 2019 ]. In the UK, cost, availability, connectivity and infrastructure, such as benches and bus shelters, were crucial in enabling active travel among elderly individuals [ Graham 2020 ].

One review identified positive effects for people with diabetes, cardiovascular disease, breast and colon cancer, and dementia, as well as all-cause mortality and the incidence of overweight and obesity [Xia 2013 ].

One review focused on mental health and found that people who actively commuted to work (cycling/walking) reported improved mental health outcomes, but this effect was reduced after baseline mental health was accounted for [Moore 2018 ].

One review examined policies to promote active travel, which found that infrastructure is at the core of promoting active travel, but policies may work best when implemented in comprehensive packages [ Winters 2017 ].

Strength of the evidence

Strength of the evidence 

Three reviews used a tool to assess the risk of bias or quality, which had moderate [ Barnett 2017 ], low [Moore 2018 ] and very low-quality evidence [ Audrey 2015 ].

The remaining 11 reviews were ranked uncertain, giving an overall rating of uncertain evidence.

Despite the uncertainty in the quality of the evidence, action should not be postponed until stronger evidence is developed, as the health, environmental, and economic benefits of active travel are clear.

Searches for evidence were conducted between 2010 and 2019 in a median of six databases. Ten of the included studies were formal systematic reviews (two with meta-analyses, one using mixed methods, and one with qualitative studies), three were literature reviews, and one was an overview of systematic reviews. 

Resource Implications

Resource Implications 

Resource implications were graded low because of the extent of the co-benefits afforded by active travel. In addition to positive health outcomes, reviews reported the economic and environmental benefits, including reducing traffic congestion, accidents, and air and noise pollution [ Graham 2020 ; Sallis 2015 ; Smith 2017 ; Winters 2017 ; Xia 2013 ].

One review estimated the combined economic benefit of eliminating short motor vehicle trips in 11 metropolitan areas in the upper mid-western USS to exceed $8 billion/year [ Xia 2013 ].

Micro-level interventions that increase attractiveness and convenience for active travel are low-cost and easier to implement than macro-level interventions for street design and layout [ Barnett 2017 ; Winters 2017 )].

The rising costs of car transport and petrol prices have reportedly increased the uptake of active travel [ de Carvalho 2012 ; Mölenberg 2019 ]. The implementation of economic incentives, such as congestion and parking fees, was found to promote active travel and significantly improve health [Stankov 2020 ].

Recommendations

• Increase investment in infrastructure for pedestrians and cyclists to promote active travel.
• Use interdisciplinary teams involving those from the transport, planning, public health, and policy sectors should embrace opportunities to implement and evaluate active transport interventions.
• Invest in high-quality research, adjusting for residential self-selection, conceptually-driven choosing of built environmental attributes, and adjusting for key socio-demographic covariates.
• Research is needed to identify the optimal density threshold that supports active travel, which is important for informing planning policy and practice. 

Related Resources

Related sources 

• WHO (2018): Global Action Plan on Physical Activity 2018-2030 – More Active People for a Healthier World
• WHO (2020): Physical activity  
• UK Department for Transport (2022): Active Travel – Local authority toolkit (guidance)
• UK Department for Transport (2020): Cycling and walking plan for England (policy paper)
• UK Department for Transports (2019): Future of Mobility – urban strategy (policy paper)
• Public Health England (2016): Active travel – a briefing for local authorities  
• Healthy Places by Design (2001-2008): Active Living by Design
• Sustrans (2017): Active Travel Toolbox 
• Open Streets Project
• Active Living Research: Tools and Resources
• Living Streets: UK Charity for Everyday Walking
• Choose how you move: A smarter way to travel in Leicester and Leicestershire
• Transport Scotland: Walking and cycling
• Imperial College London: Active travel 
• National Walk to Work Day: UK Public Health Network

References to Reviews

References of Reviews

Audrey 2015. Healthy urban environments for children and young people: A systematic review of intervention studies. Health & place 36: 97–117.

Barnett 2017. Built environmental correlates of older adults’ total physical activity and walking: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity 14(1): 103.

de Carvalho 2012. Cycling to achieve healthy and sustainable alternatives . Ciencia & saude coletiva 17(6): 1617–1628.

Gomez 2015. Urban environment interventions linked to the promotion of physical activity: a mixed methods study applied to the urban context of Latin America. Social science & medicine 131: 18–30.

Graham 2020. Older people’s experiences of everyday travel in the urban environment: a thematic synthesis of qualitative studies in the United Kingdom. Ageing & Society 40(4). Cambridge University Press: 842–868.

Kim 2019. How Does the Built Environment in Compact Metropolitan Cities Affect Health? A Systematic Review of Korean Studies. International journal of environmental research and public health 16(16). DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16162921 .

Mölenberg 2019. A systematic review of the effect of infrastructural interventions to promote cycling: strengthening causal inference from observational data. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity 16(1): 93.

Moore 2018. The effects of changes to the built environment on the mental health and well-being of adults: Systematic review. Health & place 53: 237–257.

Rachele 2019. Neighbourhood built environment and physical function among mid-to-older aged adults: A systematic review. Health & place 58: 102137.

Sallis 2015. Co-benefits of designing communities for active living: an exploration of literature. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity 12: 30.

Smith 2017. Systematic literature review of built environment effects on physical activity and active transport – an update and new findings on health equity. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity 14(1): 158.

Stankov 2020. A systematic review of empirical and simulation studies evaluating the health impact of transportation interventions. Environmental research 186: 109519.

Winters 2017. Policies to Promote Active Travel: Evidence from Reviews of the Literature. Current environmental health reports 4(3): 278–285.

Xia 2013. Co-benefits of replacing car trips with alternative transportation: a review of evidence and methodological issues. Journal of environmental and public health 2013: 797312.

• View Record

TRID the TRIS and ITRD database

Does Active Travel Make People Healthier, Or Are Healthy People More Inclined to Travel Actively?

Active travel (walking and cycling) is increasingly being recognized as a potentially effective means of increasing physical activity levels and thereby contribute to physical and mental health. To date, however, much of the empirical evidence related to the health benefits of active travel is based on cross-sectional data. As such, the direction of causation remains uncertain, i.e. does active travel lead to improved health or vice-versa, are healthier individuals more inclined to participate in active travel? This study aims to systematically assess the bidirectional relationships between active travel, on the one hand, and two relevant health outcomes on the other, namely body-mass index (BMI) and mental health. To this end, random-intercept cross-lagged panel models are estimated using data from 10 waves (years) of the Longitudinal Internet Studies for the Social sciences panel, a panel that is representative for the Dutch population. Active travel was assessed using a measure of walking frequency and mental health was measured using the 5-item mental health inventory (MHI-5). The results indicate that active travel does not affect later BMI levels, but, vice versa, BMI does negatively influence later levels of active travel, a pattern that is in line with earlier research related to general physical activity and BMI. Regarding mental health, the pattern is exactly opposite. In this case, the effect of active travel on mental health is significant, while the reverse effect is not (at the 5% level of statistical significance). Overall, the results underline the notion that cross-sectional estimates of the effects between active travel and health outcomes should be interpreted with care, as they can be the result of effects in either direction. In addition, the results suggest that the uptake of active travel may be increased by decreasing BMI levels in the population, e.g. via dietary programs.

• Record URL: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2020.100844
• Record URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214140520300487
• Find a library where document is available. Order URL: http://worldcat.org/issn/22141405
• © 2020 Maarten Kroesen and Jonas De Vos. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Abstract reprinted with permission of Elsevier.
• Kroesen, Maarten
• De Vos, Jonas
• Publication Date: 2020-3
• Media Type: Web
• Features: References;
• Pagination: 100844
• Journal of Transport & Health
• Issue Number: 0
• Publisher: Elsevier
• ISSN: 2214-1405
• Serial URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/22141405

Subject/Index Terms

• TRT Terms: Attitudes ; Bicycling ; Emotions ; Mental condition ; Nonmotorized transportation ; Physical fitness ; Walking
• Geographic Terms: Netherlands
• Subject Areas: Pedestrians and Bicyclists; Safety and Human Factors;

Filing Info

• Accession Number: 01740530
• Record Type: Publication
• Files: TRIS
• Created Date: May 26 2020 10:22AM

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Blog » World Mental Health Day 2021: The link between active travel and mental health

World Mental Health Day 2021: The link between active travel and mental health

At C3, we’re dedicated to helping people make three fundamental changes to their lives:  

• Stop using tobacco  
• Approve their diet  
• Take more physical exercise  

All of these habitual changes are crucial to helping prevent the 71% of deaths around the world caused by non-communicable diseases every year.   

There is a reason sports medicine doctor Jordan Metzl described exercise as a  miracle drug  in 2013. The physical health benefits are well-documented and unparalleled. Regular exercise slows the loss of bone density in older adults, decreasing risk of hip fractures. It decreases the risk of several cancers including lung, colon, breast, oesophagus and kidney. It lowers blood pressure and improve your cholesterol levels, reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease, and it reduces the risk of developing type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome  

Mental Health  

The mental health charity  Mind  estimates that one in four people will experience mental ill-health each year and much though exercise benefits us physically, research also demonstrates its considerable positive effect on our mental health. The Mental Health Foundation cites stress reduction, increased confidence and improved focus as clear benefits of exercise. Physical activity can also reduce the risk of depression, dementia and Alzheimer’s and can enhance sleep quality, thus reducing levels of anxiety and fatigue.   

Active Travel  

The British Medical Journal has published research showing that people who cycle regularly have a significantly lower risk of feeling stressed.  Other studies  show a positive relationship between active commuting (as a combination of both walking and cycling) and mental health.  In addition , there are external factors which impact on mental wellbeing related to physical activity. This includes, for example, living in an area with significant access or exposure to green spaces as this has a lasting positive effect on mental wellbeing for all ages and socio-economic groups.    

UK walking and cycling charity Sustrans have published an  Active Travel Toolbox , full of various guides, tools and case studies to help local authorities and their partners make the case for walking and cycling schemes including the economic case, housing growth and planning and health resources.  One of these  focuses particularly on the relationship between mental health and active travel. They write: “Most studies of the commute and stress find that active travel, followed by public transport use are the least stressful modes and that active travel is often reported as a positive experience in terms of stress management”.   

“Explanatory factors include desirable physical exercise from walking and cycling, as well as that short commutes provide a buffer between the work and private spheres. Nonetheless, evidence indicates that 30 minutes or more round trip commuting either on foot or by bicycle has a significant positive effect on mental health, most notably for men.”  

C3’s Experience  

As part of our work, C3 often participates in community health interventions. Such interventions are sadly often imposed on communities, whereas evidence shows that actively engaging communities in evaluating the challenges and opportunities they face in their day-to-day lives leads to more effective, longer-lasting solutions.  

Using the innovative, evidence-based approach known as CHESS, developed by our Global Health Associate Dr. Denise Stephens, C3 shifts decision-making to local communities by engaging them as ‘citizen scientists’ in an investigation about their health and the built environment (e.g., the shops, restaurants and parks in their neighbourhood). CHESS includes a mobile tool that equips local communities in identifying and mapping the barriers they face every day when making choices about diet, activity and healthy living.  

Active travel is consistently identified by communities we work with as something they want to do more of. The built environment is often an impediment, particularly in areas of higher deprivation,  as identified by the Chief Medical Officer Chris Whitty . The clear benefits to health, both physical and mental, and the consistent enthusiasm from community-members shows us that despite the obstacles, our work is taking us in the right direction.  

Find out more about CHESS  here .  

To seek help for a mental health problem, find more information  here .  

About the Author

• Nurses and smoking
• Nursing workforce and NCDs – a double crisis
• NCDs and diet
• Inspirited Minds
• Increasing physical activity amongst Muslim women

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Active Travel Toolkit - The role of active travel in improving health

Published: 21st JULY 2017

Walking and cycling are the most effective ways to promote routine physical activity. In general terms fitter, healthier employees benefit their employer.

The health benefits of active travel

• Health and wellbeing in the workforce
• Air quality
• Mental health

1. How active travel can improve health and wellbeing in the workforce  

The costs of absence and presenteeism (working whilst sick which can cause productivity loss, poor health, exhaustion and workplace epidemics) to business, the economy and the employee is too significant to be ignored.

Over the past 60 years, the design of urban environments and transport systems has favoured private motorised transport. Whilst this has bought some benefits, it has also imposed high health and societal costs.

Walking and cycling are the most effective ways to promote routine physical activity. In general terms fitter, healthier employees benefit their employer through:

• Lower turnover rates and reduced absenteeism
• Improved productivity and employee morale
• Lower health care costs

Transport systems and the wider built environment play a crucial role by either promoting or hindering physical activity. 

How active travel can improve health and wellbeing in the workforce toolkit contents

• Health benefits of regular physical activity.
• Health costs of physical inactivity for society and employers
• Transport modes, physical activity and health
• Case studies focusing on workplaces and the commuter journey that demonstrates increased physical activity through walking and cycling.

How active travel can improve health and wellbeing in the workforce downloadable resources

How active travel can improve health and wellbeing in the workforce (PDF)

How active travel can improve health and wellbeing in the workforce Slidepack (PDF)  

2. Improving air quality by walking and cycling 

Air pollution is damaging our environment and our health. Up to 40,000 early deaths are attributable to air pollution each year in the UK and road transport is responsible for 80% of the pollution where legal limits are being broken.

The Avoid (align transport and urban development), Shift (modal shift to active travel and public transport) and Improve (use technology to reduce emissions) approach is a useful framework for reducing air pollution.

Improving air quality by walking and cycling toolkit contents

• The impacts of poor air quality on human health.
• The benefits of modal shift from short car trips to walking and cycling.
• Approaches to improve air quality that encourage modal shift. 

Improving air quality by walking and cycling downloadable resources

Improving air quality by walking and cycling (PDF)

Improving air quality by walking and cycling Slidepack (PDF)

3. The role of active travel in improving mental health 

Poor mental health is a significant and often poorly understood issue in the UK, with one in six workers experiencing depression, anxiety or problems relating to stress at any one time.

Evidence suggests walking and cycling can contribute positively towards mental health both through physical activity and other factors in comparison to commuting by car.

More needs to be done to improve links between transport, health and wellbeing nationally and locally, including how we account for mental health outcomes in transport planning. 

The role of active travel in improving mental health toolkit contents

 Financial and personal costs of poor mental health.

• Benefits of physical activity for mental health.
• Benefits of active travel for mental health through the commute.
• Improving links between transport health and wellbeing.

The role of active travel in improving health downloadable resources 

The role of active travel in improving mental health (PDF)

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• Scarlett McNally:...

Scarlett McNally: Enabling active travel can improve the UK’s health

• Related content
• Peer review
• Scarlett McNally , professor
• Eastbourne, UK
• scarlettmcnally{at}cantab.net Follow Scarlett on X @scarlettmcnally

There is an urgent need to improve the nation’s health, which worsened over the pandemic. There is an abundance of evidence and reports, including by me, claiming that exercise is a miracle cure that improves physical and mental health and reduces demands on NHS services and the need for social care. 1 2 3 4

The best forms of exercise are those that fit into everyday life. Active travel is a “best buy” for improving health. Commuting by cycling reduces incidence of, and mortality from, heart disease and cancer by over 30% in a dose dependent manner 5 and reduces sick days and depression. 6 People don’t swap from their car to active travel because cars are normalised and our infrastructure is built around them. This means that 71% of women (and 61% of men) say it is too dangerous to cycle on roads. 7 Where there are segregated safe cycle routes, people use them, as has been demonstrated in Paris. 8

Pavements need to be repaired 9 and pedestrian junctions improved for the safety and accessibility of people walking or wheeling, including those with disabilities, children, and older people. 9 10 Mobility equity 11 won’t be achieved with so little money being spent on active travel.

In the UK, massive central funds are spent on major roads. Conversely, funds for infrastructure to support active travel are stuck in local council budgets, which are facing a £4bn spending gap. 12 In East Sussex, £2m of allocated funds has allegedly been spent on design and consultation, with minimal resulting infrastructure. 13

I have four suggestions to support active travel cheaply. Firstly, we should demand that the 2022 changes to the Highway Code are learnt by every driver: you must give priority to pedestrians at junctions, you must give 1.5 m clearance when overtaking a cyclist and not overtake on a bend or into oncoming traffic, and cyclists are encouraged to “take the lane” for their safety. 14 I give talks where I lie down on the stage to show what 1.5 m looks like, urging drivers to wait behind a fellow citizen cycling or wheeling until the next traffic jam or safe passing spot. 15 Surely, a bigger media campaign, a mandate requiring this education before insuring or using a vehicle for work, and carrying out enforcement would be more effective than my one person talk. 15

Secondly, we should demand 20 mph limits in all areas where people are. People are rightly scared to walk, cycle, or wheel where traffic is faster—the horrific injuries I see in orthopaedic and fracture clinics get exponentially worse with every 1 mph increase in speed. In Oxfordshire, most parish councils have requested 20 mph limits. 16 17 This will require minimal cost—a few signs, a change of culture, and enforcement rather than expensive traffic calming measures. 18

Thirdly, the NHS workforce should be role models. The BMA and the Health Foundation suggest the NHS should be an “anchor institution.” 19 20 The NHS is responsible for 5% of the UK’s total transport emissions—and 1.3 million staff commuting makes up the bulk of that. 19 21 A modal shift from driving to active travel needs focus, practical support, and some funding. We need pavements in all NHS sites, secure cycle parking, and lockers for wet gear. A few freebies might help, such as waterproof overtrousers for new staff and subsidised bus passes for NHS staff. Salisbury Hospital has five electric cycles that staff can try out free for two weeks, which has encouraged them to buy their own. This hugely successful scheme cost only around £15 000 and should be rolled out everywhere. 22 People using an electric cycle get just as fit as those using a standard bike, because they ride further and convert more journeys from car driving. 23

Fourthly, we need to link with other initiatives. Every NHS organisation is required to deliver a “green plan.” 20 Active travel reduces pollution, which causes catastrophic ill health and harms the planet. 24 Children getting to school under their own steam has huge benefits. Many families cannot afford a second car or live in transport poverty. People being able to get about safely reduces loneliness.

Let’s challenge the UK’s car dependency and enable active travel for everyone’s health.

Scarlett McNally is a consultant orthopaedic surgeon, deputy director of the Centre for Perioperative Care, and president of the Medical Women’s Federation.

Provenance and peer review: Commissioned, not externally peer reviewed.

• ↵ Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. Exercise the miracle cure and the role of the doctor in promoting it. 2015. www.aomrc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Exercise_the_Miracle_Cure_0215.pdf
• ↵ Chief Medical Officer. Chief medical officer’s annual report 2023: health in an ageing society. 2023. www.gov.uk/government/publications/chief-medical-officers-annual-report-2023-health-in-an-ageing-society
• McNally S ,
• Maruthappu M ,
• Celis-Morales CA ,
• Sanders T ,
• Gallardo-Gómez D ,
• ↵ Department for Transport. Walking and cycling statistics England 2019. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/906698/walking-and-cycling-statistics-england-2019.pdf
• ↵ Bennett P. Paris plans to be 100% cyclable by 2026. World Economic Forum. 2021. www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/10/paris-plans-completely-cyclable-by-2026
• ↵ Living Streets. Pedestrian slips, trips, and falls. 2023. www.livingstreets.org.uk/policy-reports-and-research/slips-trips-and-falls
• ↵ Wheels for Wellbeing. Guide to inclusive cycling. 2020. https://wheelsforwellbeing.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/FC_WfW-Inclusive-Guide_FINAL_V03.pdf
• ↵ Wheels for Wellbeing. Wheeling into the agenda. 2021. https://wheelsforwellbeing.org.uk/wheeling-into-the-agenda
• ↵ Local Government Association. Provisional local government finance settlement 2024-25: On-the-day briefing. 2024. www.local.gov.uk/parliament/briefings-and-responses/provisional-local-government-finance-settlement-202425-day
• ↵ Humphreys P. Benefits for cyclists stalled. 2024. https://bespokecyclegroup.org.uk/2024/02/25/benefits-for-cyclists-stalled
• ↵ Department for Transport. The highway code: 8 changes you need to know. 2022. www.gov.uk/government/news/the-highway-code-8-changes-you-need-to-know-from-29-january-2022
• ↵ McNally S. Scarlett transport summit. YouTube 2023. www.youtube.com/watch?v=aurBHjVS8aU&t=656s
• ↵ Oxfordshire County Council. 20mph transformation programme. 2022. www.oxfordshire.gov.uk/residents/roads-and-transport/traffic/20mph-scheme/20mph-transformation-programme
• ↵ Oxfordshire County Council. 20mph limit project progress. 2024. www.oxfordshire.gov.uk/residents/roads-and-transport/traffic/20mph-scheme/20-limit-project-progress
• ↵ Department for Transport. Setting local speed limits. 2013. www.gov.uk/government/publications/setting-local-speed-limits/setting-local-speed-limits
• ↵ BMA. Physical activity. Get a move on. 2019. www.bma.org.uk/media/2104/bma-physical-activity-briefing-get-move-on-oct-19-v2.pdf
• ↵ Health Foundation. Building healthier communities: the role of the NHS as an anchor institution. 2019. www.health.org.uk/publications/reports/building-healthier-communities-role-of-nhs-as-anchor-institution
• ↵ NHS England. Net zero travel and transport strategy. 2023. www.england.nhs.uk/long-read/net-zero-travel-and-transport-strategy
• ↵ Salisbury NHS Foundation Trust. Sustainable travel plan 2023 to 2025. 2023. www.salisbury.nhs.uk/media/engnqn0y/sft-sustainable-travel-plan-2023-to-2025.pdf
• Gaupp-Berghausen M ,
• ↵ Chief Medical Officer. Chief medical officer’s annual report 2022: air pollution. www.gov.uk/government/publications/chief-medical-officers-annual-report-2022-air-pollution

About Active Travel

Increasing levels of active travel can bring huge benefits to our communities, health and environment. , active travel simply means making journeys in physically active ways - like walking, wheeling (using a wheelchir or mobility aid), cycling, or scootering..

We aim to make active travel the natural choice for short journeys.

By supporting more people in Scotland to walk, wheel, and cycle for everyday short journeys, we will improve health, create safer communities, and reduce environmental impacts.

In 2019 seventeen per cent of journeys in Scotland were under 1 km, and more than half (54%) were under 5 km – these shorter trips offer a real opportunity for a significant shift to active travel.

The role of walking

Walking is key to getting more people choosing to not use car, it is by far the most likely mode of active travel. It is free, no equipment is required and it is ideal for shorter trips. Walking also forms an important part of public transport journeys – walking to and from buses, trams and trains. 

The positive impact of increased active travel

Reduced congestion - enabling people to choose active or sustainable travel will reduce congestion on our roads

Reduced air pollution - less car-driven journeys and more walking, wheeling, cycling and public transport are important in tackling air pollution and its negative health impacts. As well as being a part of the solution, active travel becomes more pleasant and therefore more likely to be adopted as air quality improves.

Higher quality public realm -  Improving opportunities to walk will create places and communities that are more able to adapt and be vibrant, creative, enterprising, and accessible

Better physical, mental and social health - Active travel has clear health benefits as physical activity increases, social connections are made and mental health is boosted by activity and time outdoors in nature. Active travel is an important opportunity for savings in terms of preventing ill health.

Reducing carbon emissions and helping reach net-zero carbon goals - Changing to active travel can have significant lifecycle carbon emissions benefits.  The largest benefits come from shifts from car to active travel for business, social and commuting journeys.

Economic growth and vibrant communities  - Investing in infrastructure and support for active travel can increase economic growth and vibrancy. Those walking, wheeling and cycling tend to spend more money locally than drivers. Increasing active travel can stimulate economic growth in urban areas and benefit local shops

• It is inclusive and reduces inequalities - Accessible walking, wheeling, cycling and good public transport links can reduce inequalities by giving equal access to employment, education and other services. 

Active travel and COVID-19

The Covid crisis has had significant impacts on active travel with huge decreases in use of public transport and a greater interest in walking and cycling. At the same time many of us have been working from home and recognising the importance of our local neighbourhoods. Other people have lost fitness and confidence to reintegrate and leave their homes and have deteriorated physically.

A number of towns and cities across Scotland implemented and benefitted from a temporary emergency active travel infrastructure initiative called Spaces for People . The initiative included a widening of pavements, closing streets to vehicles or adding temporary cycle lanes.

As Scotland moves forward from the pandemic there has been an opportunity to harness the increases in active travel, support those who have struggled to stay active, and invest in sustainale transport to build a healthier, cleaner, fairer and safer nation.  

Also in this section

• Active Travel Partners
• Community Project Transition Fund
• Encouraging Active Travel
• Success Stories

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• Driving and road transport
• Cycling and walking

Active travel: local authority toolkit

• Department for Transport

Updated 10 August 2022

Applies to England

© Crown copyright 2022

This publication is licensed under the terms of the Open Government Licence v3.0 except where otherwise stated. To view this licence, visit nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3 or write to the Information Policy Team, The National Archives, Kew, London TW9 4DU, or email: [email protected] .

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This publication is available at https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/active-travel-local-authority-toolkit/active-travel-local-authority-toolkit

Walking, wheeling and cycling are the least carbon-intensive ways to travel.

However, walking currently accounts for only 5% of the total distance travelled in England. Around 49% of trips in towns and cities under 5 miles were made by car in 2021, with around a quarter of all car trips in England less than 2 miles.

Many of these trips could be walked, wheeled or cycled, which would help to reduce the 68 megatons ( Mt ) carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emitted from cars in 2019. This would benefit local economies, as well as improve people’s health.

More active travel will also make roads quieter, safer and more attractive for people to walk, wheel and cycle – a virtuous cycle.

As we decarbonise transport, making all cars, public transport and heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) zero emission is part of the solution, but relying solely on zero emission road vehicles isn’t enough.

Road traffic, even on pre-COVID-19 trends, was predicted to grow by 22% from 2015 to 2035, much of it in cities where building new roads is physically difficult and disadvantages communities.

As set out in the second cycling and walking investment strategy (CWIS2), the government wants walking, wheeling and cycling to be the natural first choice for shorter journeys or as part of longer journeys.

Local authorities can play an important role in increasing walking, wheeling and cycling. Through influencing planning and taking a wider, strategic view of travel infrastructure across their area, authorities can ensure that active travel infrastructure connects residents to services.

As local leaders, authorities have a wide sphere of influence and can lead by example in adopting, promoting and providing infrastructure to enable and encourage active travel with their staff.

Authorities can also work with local businesses, industrial estates and business improvement districts to design specific interventions and behaviour change programmes to enable active travel with their employees and customers.

The primary actions for local authorities are to:

• develop Local Cycling and Walking Infrastructure Plans (LCWIPs)
• develop and implement Travel Demand Management Plans
• plan for and improve active travel infrastructure
• promote behaviour change to enable active travel

What active travel means

Active travel refers to modes of travel that involve a level of activity.

The term is often used interchangeably with walking and cycling, but active travel can also include trips made by wheelchair, mobility scooters, adapted cycles, e-cycles, scooters, as well as cycle sharing schemes (adapted from the definition in the Future of Mobility: urban strategy .

Wheels for Wellbeing explains that cycling includes a wide range of cycle types, including:

• recumbent tricycles
• cycles for 2 (tandem, side by side, wheelchair tandem and duet bikes)

Recent changes in active travel

The 2021 National Travel Survey found that the number of walking trips remained at a similar level to 2020, which is below the level seen in recent years prior to the pandemic. Whilst overall levels of walking have fallen in recent years, people are choosing to walk further, with walking trips of over a mile remaining higher than pre-pandemic years.

Cycling decreased back towards pre-pandemic levels, following a peak during 2020. The National Travel Survey reported that:

• 47% of people over 5 years had access to a pedal cycle, the same level as 2020
• less people (a decrease of 27%) cycled for part of their trip, and the average number of trips by cycle decreased by 27%
• following the peak of average miles cycled per person in 2020, average miles decreased by 37% in 2021 – bringing it back to pre-pandemic levels

Wave 5 of the National Travel Attitude Survey focused on cycling with:

• off-road and segregated cycle paths (55%), safer roads(53%) and well-maintained surfaces (49%) the most common measures that respondents said would encourage them to cycle more
• 64% supporting the creation of dedicated cycle lanes, at the expense of road space for cars

E-cycles are growing in popularity and make cycling accessible to more people, build users’ confidence and enable cycling in more challenging terrain.

The definition of e-cycle includes all electrically assisted pedal cycles, electric cycles, e-bikes and e-trikes.

E-cycles offer assistance only when the rider is pedalling and must comply with the electrically assisted pedal cycles (EAPCs) regulations .

To be classified as an EAPC and not treated as a motor vehicle, when used on roads, a cycle fitted with an electric motor must comply with the requirements of the EAPC Regulations 1983. Specifically:

• it must be fitted with pedals that are capable of propelling it
• the maximum continuous rated power of the electric motor must not exceed 250 watts
• electrical assistance must cut off when the vehicle reaches 15.5 miles an hour

Cycle sharing

Cycle sharing describes any setting where cycles can be borrowed by the public or an employee (for workplace schemes).

Cycle sharing schemes can be an effective way to re-engage people in cycling – in CoMoUK’s 2021 bike share report nearly half of the 4,000 respondents said that joining a scheme was a catalyst to them cycling for the first time in at least a year, and 24% of them had not cycled for 5 years or more.

CoMoUK offers more information and guidance on cycle sharing schemes and identifies different scheme types:

• public – growing rapidly, these can include e-cycles. They integrate well with other modes of transport and are established in Belfast, Brighton, Cardiff, Glasgow, Liverpool and London and smaller locations such as Hereford, Guildford, and Stirling. Existing schemes in the UK can be found on CoMoUK’s map
• station-based – cycles are located at train stations and at various points across the town or city, at staffed or unstaffed hubs, docking stations or in a geo-fenced area. Some can be returned to any dock and others must be returned to the starting location
• free-floating – where cycles can be left anywhere within the urban boundary, often with guidance on not causing obstructions when parking
• cycle libraries – allow users to rent cycles for short periods and include cycle hubs in community locations (such as libraries and sports centres)
• peer-to-peer – where owners rent their cycle out for a fee
• pool cycles – generally housed at workplaces or community locations and borrowed by members of staff or the community. These schemes may share public facilities such as cycle storage

Implementing active travel: cycle sharing in Scotland

In 2020, the grant programme Paths for All, Smarter Choices, Smarter Places , in Edinburgh and Glasgow, worked to increase the uptake of cycle-sharing. This generated almost 18,000 new users and a 38% increase in trips in 3 months.

Users reported an improvement in their physical and mental health, and 10% went on to buy their own cycle. Further details are available from CoMoUK .

The benefits of active travel

Encouraging mode shift to walking, wheeling and cycling is one of the most cost-effective ways of reducing transport emissions, as outlined in the transport decarbonisation plan.

Walking, wheeling and cycling can decrease congestion, air and noise pollution, and both are linked to health and economic benefits.

Friends of the Earth produced a briefing on the role and benefits of segregated cycleways and e-cycles in urban areas. They report that improvements could deliver benefits for health, carbon and local economies, and make recommendations to maximise the effectiveness of funding.

Carbon emissions and air pollution

Sustrans, the national travel charity, estimates that 28,000 to 36,000 early deaths occur each year in the UK due to air pollution worsening heart and lung disease. They report that 80% of roadside nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) pollution is from road transport where limits are being broken.

As more of our short journeys (48% of all trips in urban towns and cities are under 2 miles) are walked or cycled, the carbon, air quality, noise and congestion benefits will be complemented by significant improvements in public health and wellbeing.

It is estimated that active travel can deliver between 1 MtCO2e and 6 MtCO2e savings from 2020 to 2050 in the transport decarbonisation plan.

In cycle share schemes, an average of 53kg of CO2e are saved per cycle share user each year according to CoMoUK’s 2021 bike share report .

Active travel can reduce the proportion of people driving children to school by up to 33%. Through projects such as the Big Pedal , 8.5 million car miles could be saved, resulting in a decrease of 2,500 tCO2e and reductions in NO2 levels.

Future active travel spending is expected to deliver £20 million to £100 million savings from air quality improvements as well as providing opportunities to improve green space and biodiversity.

Physical health

Physical inactivity costs the NHS up to £1 billion each year , with additional indirect costs of £8.2 billion according to a report by the Department for Transport ( DfT ) in 2014 on the economic benefits of walking and cycling . This report also highlights a link between adult obesity levels and travel behaviour as countries with the highest levels of cycling and walking generally have the lowest obesity rates.

In Growing Cycle Use , the Local Government Association ( LGA ) reports that if cycling rates were elevated to London levels across other UK cities, this would avoid at least 34,000 incidences of 8 life-threatening conditions between 2017 and 2040.

Regular commuting by cycle is linked to a lower risk of cancer or heart disease compared to other forms of transport. This may be partly due to cyclists and walkers being exposed to less air pollution than drivers and passengers inside vehicles on the same routes.

In the 2021 bike share report , CoMoUK found that 20% of cycle share scheme users said that if formed ‘all’ or a ‘major part’ of the physical activity they undertook.

Sustrans identifies further health benefits: a 3-mile commute will achieve recommended levels of activity each week.

The Energy Saving Trust reports that walking strengthens muscles, lungs, bones and joints.

Physical activity has also been shown to reduce incidences of heart disease, asthma, diabetes and cancer , as well as benefiting those with bad backs.

Mental health

Exercise can protect against anxiety and depression, according to the NHS . Any exercise is beneficial but exercising outdoors can have additional benefits.

Research in the British Medical Journal suggests that exercise can also help reduce stress . Guidance from the UK Chief Medical Officers’ on physical activity suggests that 30 minutes of moderate activity per day almost halve the odds of experiencing depression .

Gear Change states that completing 20 minutes of exercise each day cuts the risk of depression by 31% and increases worker productivity.

Economic benefits

Increasing active travel will reduce road congestion, particularly at peak times, leading to increased productivity and improved movement of goods and services. Sustrans estimates that congestion costs £10 billion per year in 2009 in urban areas, and that this cost could rise to £22 billion by 2025.

Living Streets’ Pedestrian Pound report outlined a range of economic benefits of walking, including that well-planned walking improvements can lead to a 40% increase in shopping footfall.

The LGA highlights how, after a Canadian council reallocated high street parking as bike lanes or cycle parking for a year, businesses benefitted from increased footfall (20% increase), spend (16% increase) and increased frequency of return visits (13% increase).

The Transport decarbonisation plan states that cycle manufacture, distribution, retail and sales contribute £0.8 billion per year to the economy and support around 22,000 jobs.

For organisations

As an employer, promoting active travel can help with corporate social responsibility, reduce the impact of business traffic (including commuting) locally and reduce demand for parking spaces.

Active travel can also improve the health and wellbeing of staff, increase productivity and motivation, and aid the recruitment and retention of skilled workers. More information is available on the Sustrans website .

Actions for local authorities

Local authorities are well placed to plan and provide space for inclusive active travel infrastructure and accompanying behavioural change programmes. For Local Transport Authorities (LTAs) and combined authorities, doing so is part of their responsibilities on highways and road safety.

The LGA , as part of their decarbonising transport series, produced guidance on how authorities can grow cycle use. They note that measures will be most effective if implemented as part of a comprehensive active travel plan, integrated with wider transport, climate and housing strategies.

The final evaluation report of the Cycle City Ambition programme makes suggestions for local policymakers and practitioners on the most effective ways to increase active travel. It found that improving infrastructure is effective in increasing cycling and improving health equity, but requires significant investment and may take some time for impacts to be fully realised.

Sustrans can assist local authorities to develop active travel policy and guidance. It can also help promote active travel and provide feedback on walking and cycling schemes. Its website has sections for professionals, policy, and a resource library to enable authorities to make the case for active travel.

Living Streets can offer specialist advice and support for local authorities on enabling walking, including school and community engagement and infrastructure design.

Wheels for Wellbeing is a national charity that supports disabled people to access and enjoy cycling. As part of its Infrastructure for All campaign , it has highlighted the most significant barriers to cycling for disabled cyclists, including inaccessible cycling infrastructure and inadequate facilities to secure adapted cycles.

It recommends that authorities looking to install or upgrade cycling infrastructure follow LTN 1/20 – Cycle Infrastructure Design Guidance or the London Cycling Design Standards inclusive cycle concept.

Wheels for Wellbeing has published a Guide to Inclusive Cycling that promotes best practice in designing inclusive cycling infrastructure.

Implementing active travel: Greater Manchester

Using funding from the Cycle Cities Ambition programme, Greater Manchester built 3 miles of cycle lanes along one of the city’s busiest bus routes in 2017 .

Infrastructure installed included a mix of on-road and fully segregated cycle lanes and shared-use paths, along with 26 bus stop bypass lanes for cyclists.

The cycling measures were planned as part of a holistic design to improve the environment and maximise opportunities for cycling, walking and improved bus travel along the corridor.

The overall scheme included widened footways and improved crossing facilities for pedestrians and the removal of general traffic from a section of the road at certain times of day, improving bus journey time reliability. Mitigation measures to address traffic displacement onto parallel routes were also introduced.

Surveys found that in 2018, cycling 2 miles from the city centre was up 85% against a 2015 baseline.

For 2018, analysis identified more than a million journeys along one section of the route, saving an estimated 873.5 tonnes of CO2 .

1. Develop a Local Cycling and Walking Infrastructure Plan

Local Cycling and Walking Infrastructure Plans (LCWIPs) are part of the 2017 cycling and walking investment strategy .

Although not mandatory, their aim is to help authorities in England take a strategic approach to improving conditions for walking and cycling and ensure that consideration is given to walking and cycling within local planning and transport policies.

Developing an LCWIP will help an authority make a strong case for future investment in active travel infrastructure. DfT has produced guidance and tools on developing an LCWIP .

The main outputs from an LCWIP are a:

• mapped network plan for walking, wheeling and cycling that identifies preferred routes, current and future travel patterns, and core zones for further development
• prioritised programme of infrastructure improvements for future investment in the short, medium and long term that contributes towards meeting broader local goals
• report that sets out the underlying analysis, including the barriers and enablers for walking, wheeling and cycling, and provides a narrative to support the improvements identified

As of September 2020, 45 of the 46 local authorities that took part in the original DfT LCWIP pilot scheme had submitted an LCWIP.

Cycling measures, infrastructure and networks identified in an LCWIP should follow the best practice guidance in Local Transport Note 1/20 on delivering high-quality cycling infrastructure.

Authorities can ensure that new infrastructure is inclusive by following the Wheels for Wellbeing guidance .

Wave 5 of the National Travel Attitudes Survey identified safety as a major concern among those who would like to cycle more often. One action to boost cycling is to provide dedicated road space for cyclists. The development of a network of high-quality, segregated cycling infrastructure, through inclusion in LCWIPs, will encourage growth.

The LGA notes that a mixture of measures is needed alongside segregated infrastructure to develop safe cycling networks , including vehicle speed and volume management.

To support the development of LCWIPs, Sustrans produced a report addressing 9 misconceptions about implementing cycling infrastructure.

For each myth, it provides evidence and sample messages to support a communications campaign and make the case for increased investment in active travel.

On 6 July 2022, DfT published the second statutory Cycling and Walking Investment Strategy (CWIS 2) , which covers the period between 2021 and 2025. The strategy includes new and updated objectives including:

• increasing levels of walking and walking to school
• doubling cycling
• increasing the proportion of journeys in towns and cities that are walked or cycled

It also sets out the funding in place to achieve these objectives.

2. Develop a Travel Demand Management Plan

LTAs in England can assist in encouraging active travel by developing a Travel Demand Management (TDM) plan.

These aim to manage pressure on a transport network under times of heightened demand and uncertainty. An effective TDM plan can contribute data to the development of an LCWIP, as well as strengthen the case for investment.

The DfT toolkit for LTAs on developing TDM plans , produced by Mott MacDonald, can be used to support LTAs in developing TDM plans following COVID-19.

The toolkit also allows authorities to manage other scenarios where there are pressures on the transport network or times of higher demand. The toolkit includes worked scenarios, a template action plan and sample questions to answer during the data-gathering exercise.

To be effective, TDM plans need:

• leadership, support and endorsement from all agencies within the LTA area
• clear identification of the problem and size of the challenge
• range of alternative travel options available
• strength of message to influence travel
• good communication channels to ensure messages reach their intended audience
• focused approach with audience and mode segmentation
• trust and credibility (from the audience) in the quality of information provided
• consistent message across all stakeholders built around the core narrative
• time and resources to implement the plan
• ability to track and monitor impacts

Implementing active travel: TDM in the West Midlands

Transport for the West Midlands (TfWM) developed a TDM programme , including a strategy and delivery plan, in August 2020, in anticipation of pupils returning to school following COVID-19 lockdowns.

TfWM worked with districts and transport operators to implement measures designed to avoid a mismatch between travel demand and supply. Travel planners undertook surveys to identify schools in need of support and produced a toolkit and supporting communications material.

Implementing active travel: TDM in North Yorkshire

North Yorkshire County Council developed a TDM plan to support modal shift from cars to active travel when schools returned from lockdown. It focused on behaviour change to raise awareness of transport options, particularly active travel and road safety.

A brand identity and core messaging were developed, along with a social media content plan to target specific demographics and signpost to resources such as Open North Yorkshire . Since then, 18% of trips have switched to non-car travel – 9% to active travel and 9% to public or school transport.

3. Plan for active travel

As planning and transport authorities, local authorities play a significant role in enabling residents to use active travel modes.

The government’s Transport decarbonisation plan contains a commitment to embed the transport decarbonisation principles in spatial planning and an ambition to make walking, cycling and public transport the first natural choice for journeys.

One of the commitments of Gear Change was the establishment of Active Travel England (ATE) . ATE launched as an executive agency in January 2022, with one of its stated objectives being to improve the provision of walking, wheeling and cycling infrastructure.

ATE will be a statutory consultee in the spatial planning system, approve and inspect walking, wheeling and cycling schemes and support local authorities through the sharing of knowledge and good practice.

As the LGA reports, easy access to destinations such as employment, education, healthcare and leisure facilities, will encourage take-up , as will incorporating green routes, parks and water features into infrastructure. More direct and better connected routes and secure cycle parking at critical points to allow inter-modal journeys, help to extend the reach of cycling.

Sustrans’s Cycling for Everyone report looks at how to improve access to cycling and reduce inequality through improvements to governance, planning and decision-making. It includes recommendations on making cycling more inclusive encompassing scheme design, public engagement and user safety. Arup, Living Streets and Sustrans have also published a Walking for Everyone report, which provides information, advice and recommendations to make walking and wheeling more inclusive. Sustrans have also recently published the results of their Disabled Citizens’ Inquiry into active travel which provides a number of helpful recommendations for local authorities.

Implementing active travel: Levenshulme and Burnage Active Neighbourhood

Sustrans worked with Manchester City Council, Bespoke Transport Consulting, Transport for Greater Manchester and local community groups as part of the Bee Network to create the first ‘active neighbourhood’ in the Levenshulme and Burnage area of South Manchester. An active neighbourhood aims to prioritise the movement of people over motor traffic.

This scheme intends to create an Active ‘filtered’ Neighbourhood, using planters to reduce traffic in the area and encourage residents to use other forms of sustainable transport – particularly walking and cycling.

Consultations are currently underway and the scheme is expected to be completed by March 2022.

Levenshulme and Burnage Active Neighbourhood is now being managed by Manchester City Council.

4. Develop a behaviour change programme for active travel

Authorities can stimulate a shift to active travel for short journeys through effective communication, design and implementation of behaviour change interventions.

As local leaders, planning authorities, transport authorities and employers, authorities can demonstrate best practice by modelling approaches to increase walking, wheeling and cycling and promote the benefits of embedding active travel within staff engagement and carbon reduction plans.

Active Travel behaviour change interventions could include (but are not limited to):

• cycle and e-cycle hire schemes
• business grants to provide facilities or equipment
• travel planning
• cycling skills courses (for children, adults and families)
• walking and cycling engagement events
• school-focused initiatives
• measures to improve cycle security
• measures to tackle inclusion and accessibility barriers

Evidence shows that it is more effective to develop behaviour change and infrastructure projects together, rather than in isolation.

Developing and implementing a programme of behaviour change initiatives for staff and residents will enable use of new infrastructure and reduce reliance on cars.

Growing Cycle Use suggests that local authorities should embed cycling in local culture through integration into school, workplaces and towns.

Designing inclusive approaches that take advantage of, and build on, existing programmes that have high value for money, such as Living Streets’ Walk to School Outreach and Cycling UK’s Big Bike Revival , and engaging with national events, such as Bike Week or Walk to School week, can drive uptake. Initiatives targeted at school-age children especially would help to create a local active travel culture from an early age.

Implementing active travel: gamification to encourage active travel

Research by Cardiff Metropolitan University has highlighted the benefit of combining infrastructure for active travel with novel behaviour change techniques. Beat the Street is an active travel engagement platform that encourages players to use active travel to move around their area, swiping their cards at consecutive locations to earn points.

Evaluation conducted by researchers on levels of active travel before and after intervention found that the number of players doing less than 30 minutes of activity per week decreased by 7% and those reporting more than 150 minutes of activity increased by 13%. The study also reported 53% fewer cars and vans in the morning commute and 33% fewer cars in the afternoon.

For further information on Beat the Street, contact [email protected] .

Cycle training

Providing cycle training for staff and residents can enable greater uptake of cycling through increasing confidence and skill of participants.

The national standard for cycle training describes the skills and understanding needed to cycle safely and responsibly and to enable others to cycle. Any cycle training to support safe cycling on the road should be based on the national standard.

Bikeability cycle training is the DfT -approved and funded method of delivering national standard training. It is a practical training programme, enabling trainees to cycle safely and confidently on today’s roads and learn basic cycle maintenance skills. It must be delivered by trained and registered instructors, registered and quality assured by the Bikeability Trust .

Your local authority may have an in-house team of registered Bikeability instructors or hold a contract with an independent training provider. Contracts are usually managed by road safety, active or sustainable travel teams.

Outside London, DfT provides funding to local highway authorities to deliver Bikeability in schools and the community. Grants for Bikeability training are managed by the Bikeability Trust.

In London, cycle training is funded by Transport for London (TfL) and the boroughs. Scotland and Wales have separate arrangements.

In some circumstances, DfT -funded Bikeability is managed and arranged via a school games organiser ( SGO ) host school, rather than by the local authority. The list of SGOs in receipt of Bikeability grants is available on the Bikeability website.

While Bikeability is primarily associated with children and the majority of Bikeability training is delivered through the school’s programme, the scheme also includes modules aimed at adults and family groups.

Since the programme started in 2007, more than 3 million children have received Bikeability training, and DfT and the Bikeability Trust are working together to develop plans so that every child and adult can take up an offer of training.

Promoting active travel to work

Authorities can lead by example by promoting active travel to their staff and working with local businesses to promote active travel to employees.

Research carried out by the behavioural insights team ( BIT ), working with DfT , sets out to develop policy options to convert high levels of cycling during the COVID-19 pandemic into more long-term travel habits .

The A Moment of Change: Guidance for local authorities on promoting an active return to work focuses on the cycle to work policy option from the BIT research, and provides a comprehensive toolkit to support local authorities in the design, implementation and evaluation of behaviour change programmes that promote an active return to work.

It covers developing, funding and choosing a model for a behaviour change programme, as well as suggested initiatives, case study examples of different interventions and resources to help build a business case and important messages.

Suggested actions from the guidance include:

• ensure your policies support and promote active travel where appropriate
• undertake a travel survey to find out how your staff currently travel and the barriers to active travel or public transport use
• consider developing staff travel plans to identify practical lower-carbon commuting options
• provide safe and secure cycle storage at your offices
• provide e-cycle charging to encourage those with a slightly longer commute to cycle
• provide access to showers for those who choose to run or cycle in. This can be in your office, or at a nearby leisure centre
• appoint an active travel champion. They could organise a bike buddy scheme, coordinate participation in active travel challenges or organise bike maintenance sessions
• sign up to a cycle to work scheme, such as Cyclescheme or the Green Commute Initiative . These are a form of employee benefits that allow staff to purchase cycles and accessories at a reduced cost, which is reclaimed through an employee’s pay

See the Sustrans website for more suggestions.

Tools and funding

Numerous tools from government and research bodies are available to assist local authorities in planning, implementing and assessing active travel infrastructure. They include:

• Active Travel Portal brings together information for local authorities, including case studies, links to documents, policies and research
• Healthy Streets Design Check : published by DfT to support authorities in applying LTN1/20 guidance. The tool measures existing streets and proposed designs to determine how healthy they are
• Propensity to Cycle : a strategic planning tool to help transport planners and policymakers prioritise investments and interventions to promote cycling
• Cycling Infrastructure Prioritisation Toolkit : a collection of tools that provides an evidence base for prioritising infrastructure to promote cycling
• Place-Based Carbon Calculator : estimates a per capita carbon footprint for each lower layer super output area (LSOA), as well as showing roughly 15-minute travel times using different modes
• Active Travel Toolbox : a collection of guides, tools and case studies to help local authorities deliver walking and cycling schemes in their area
• Active Mode Appraisal Toolkit : a spreadsheet-based tool for assessing the overall benefits of walking and cycling interventions. DfT has produced guidance on its use
• The Town and Country Planning Association (TCPA) published an introductory guide to 20-minute neighbourhoods for local authorities in March 2021

Active Travel Portal has a guide to the funding options available to local authorities, including annual allocations that can support active travel, as well as competitive funds.

The UK government’s capability fund was announced in January 2023 and allocated revenue funding to all local authorities (outside London) to enable more walking and cycling in their local areas through developing LTN 1/20 compliant infrastructure plans and undertaking behaviour change activity.

Guidance issued to all authorities as part of the capability fund allocation highlights the need to monitor and evaluate the impact of schemes delivered through the fund. Authorities are required to report their progress and share the findings of their evaluation with Active Travel England.

The capability fund has been followed by a capital grants fund , allocated to authorities based on the quality of the plans developed.

Funding for Bikeability Cycle training in schools and the community in England (outside London) is available from DfT and training is delivered by Bikeability.

Local authorities agree their funding allocation and training activities with the Bikeability Trust at the start of the calendar year.

Any local authority wishing to discuss their allocation should contact the Bikeability Trust in the first instance.

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Mental Health and Travel

Travel can be a relaxing escape, but it can also be stressful and affect your mental health. Travel-related stress can spark mood changes, depression, and anxiety. Travel can worsen symptoms in people with existing mental illness. Below are some steps you can take before and during travel that may help reduce stress and protect your mental health.

Before Your Trip

Make an appointment with your healthcare provider or a travel health specialist  that takes place at least one month before you leave. They can help you get destination-specific vaccines, medicines, and information. Discussing your health concerns, itinerary, and planned activities with your provider allows them to give more specific advice and recommendations.

When you talk with your healthcare provider, discuss your mental health history and concerns. Mention any treatments for substance abuse, depression, or other mental health problems, and any prescription or over-the-counter medicines or supplements you routinely take.

Check CDC’s destination pages for travel health information . Check CDC’s webpage for your destination to see what vaccines or medicines you may need and what diseases or health risks are a concern at your destination.

If you will be traveling for a long time or moving abroad, you may want to get a referral for a mental health professional at your destination, especially if you are seeing one at home.

Get travel insurance.  Find out if your health insurance covers medical care abroad. Travelers are usually responsible for paying hospital and other medical expenses out of pocket at most destinations. Make sure you have a plan to  get care overseas , in case you need it. Consider buying  additional insurance  that covers health care and emergency evacuation, especially if you will be traveling to remote areas.

During Your Trip

Take recommended medicines as directed. If your doctor prescribes medicine for you, take the medicine as directed before, during, and after travel. Counterfeit drugs are common in some countries, so only take medicine that you bring from home and make sure to pack enough for the duration of your trip, plus extra in case of travel delays. Learn more about traveling abroad with medicine .

Check out these additional tips to keep yourself mentally healthy during your travel:

• Practice healthy habits during travel , including eating healthy and exercising regularly.
• Get help if you feel stressed, anxious, depressed, very angry, or if you want to hurt yourself or someone else.
• Locate medical services by contacting the US embassy at your destination. They can help you locate medical services and will notify your family and friends in the event of an emergency.
• Seek support, if you need it , from groups like Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Narcotics Anonymous (NA). They may have English-language meetings at your destination.

After Your Trip

Symptoms of a mental health condition may not show up until you return from your trip. Visit your doctor or another health professional if you feel stressed, anxious, depressed, very angry, or if you want to hurt yourself or others, especially if you witnessed or experienced traumatic or life-threatening events on your trip. Tell the provider about your recent trip, activities, and any medicines or supplements you have taken.

More Information

CDC Yellow Book: Mental Health

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Nine Easy Ways to Stay Active and Boost Your Health as You Age

A s we age, our bodies and minds need more TLC than during our youth. There are many factors that contribute to overall wellness, including physical activity, healthy eating, and social interaction. The CDC reports that older adults need at least 150 minutes of exercise per week,1 for example, and a 2019 study found that seniors who maintain social interaction with people beyond their usual circle were more likely to have positive moods and fewer negative feelings.2 Those are just two of many ways to stay in great shape — in all senses of the word.

Check out our list of nine tips to stay active to boost your health, mentality, and morale — and keep living life to the fullest.

1. Stay Physically Fit

Consistent physical activity is essential for maintaining good health as you age, which is why it's the top tip on our list. Exercise has many benefits, one of which is delaying the health issues that come along with age. Seniors who are active typically stay healthy longer, so having a wide variety of activities to choose from will help keep you in shape, no matter your walk of life. If you have pre-existing conditions such as diabetes, don't worry. There are plenty of activities the National Council on Aging recommends.

Whether you join a golf league, take long walks, or do Zumba in the evenings, finding an  exercise program  you enjoy and that works with your schedule is the best way to stay consistent.

2. Keep Your Balance

According to the CDC, millions of people ages 65 and older fall each year, and one in five of those falls results in a serious injury such as broken bones or a head injury.3 Typically the root cause of these falls is the reduction of coordination and balance, so adding balance exercises to your routine can go a long way toward improving your health, maintaining your independence, and preventing falls. SilverSneakers offers a list of  the best balance exercises  and how to perform them.

FYI:  Medical alert systems can give seniors added protection against falls. Check out our list of the  top medical alert systems  to learn more.

3. Brain Games

One study found that mental activities such as making  crafts  lowered the risk of  dementia  among more than 2 million adults.4 Pushing the brain to learn a new skill or engage in activities that require mental stimulation can significantly improve emotional well-being and health.  Brain games  can be broken up into six major categories:

• Memory:  Card games such as Match or memory games such as Bop It can help the brain focus on recalling previously obtained information and build information-processing skills.
• Word:  Whether you are looking for hidden words in a word search, filling in the blanks of a crossword, or building words with a game like Scrabble, word games keep the brain sharp.
• Handheld or electronic:  These games give you a chance to work your brain power when you have some alone time. “Jeopardy!,” “Wheel of Fortune,” and “Family Feud” can be played on a computer or smartphone app.
• Board:  Board games such as checkers and chess challenge you to use strategy and bet on chance.
• Video:  Studies have found that playing video games such as Super Mario and Minecraft improve hand-eye coordination and engage the hippocampus, the part of the brain that works with episodic memory.
• Trivia:  These games help you recall information centered around historical events and areas of interest. Trivial Pursuit is a great example of a trivia game.

4. Stay Socially Active

Many individuals associate the word “active” with physical activity, but social engagement is just as pertinent for higher quality of life. The Harvard School of Public Health reported evidence that older adults with active social lives have slower rates of memory decline.5 Lack of social stimulation, social isolation, and loneliness are leading causes of depression in older adults, which is why seniors who integrate social activities into their schedules have improved health and life expectancy, as well as lower depression risk.

Quick Tip:  Hearing plays a major role in your health. If you have hearing loss, check out our list of the  best hearing aids for active seniors .

5. Eat Well

Eating habits are critical to health. It's important to provide your body with sustainable energy using whole foods. We recommend the following tips:

• Always read the labels so you are aware of what you're eating.
• Stay away from processed products such as cookies, cakes, and candy, and incorporate leafy greens, whole grains, protein, and legumes into your diet.
• Avoid high sodium and artificial ingredients.
• Cook more meals at home so you know exactly what is going into your food.

Sweet treats and pizza nights are completely fine in moderation, but having a well-balanced diet can significantly help boost overall energy levels and health morale.

6. Maintain a Routine

Establishing a routine can help you stay sharp and enhance your physical and emotional well-being. Something as simple as walking around your neighborhood or local park every day, watching the nightly news, or reading a  book  for an hour a few times a week can build structure and stability. Creating routines around workouts, meals, and other healthy activities can help you stay on track, meet your goals, and create consistency.

7. Watch Your Sleep

The UK Biobank collected data from 500,000 adults from the ages of 38 to 73 regarding their sleeping patterns. The study showed that seven hours of sleep was the sweet spot to improve cognitive performance and mental health.6 Lack of sleep and insufficient rest times can leave you unfocused and tired, and increase cravings for processed foods. Sleep can often be overlooked, but resting your body and mind is essential for overall health and wellness.

8. Relax More

Incorporating relaxation into your routine has many benefits. Adopting a pet for  companionship , watching your favorite movies, reading a book, taking a bubble bath, or spending time doing things you love can be great stress relievers. Schedule time to relax each day or throughout the week. It can be easy to skip when your day gets busy, so building it into your calendar ensures you make time to unwind.

9. Travel and Live Your Life

Retirement is a prime opportunity to travel and see the world, which is great for keeping your spirit young and thriving. Whether you want to travel with a spouse, go on a friends trip, or travel with other like-minded individuals, expanding your horizons can boost happiness and emotional health levels. Many travel companies organize groups exclusively for  seniors with discounted rates  and the opportunity to make new friends.

FYI:  If traveling is something you are considering, look at our comprehensive  guide to the best travel insurance for seniors  to stay safe on your travels.

Closing Thoughts

There are many ways to keep your mind, body, and soul in tip-top shape, and these nine tips are a great place to start. When it comes to your health and feeling your best, don't be afraid to try new things, establish a routine, and embrace your adventurous side. We promise you won't regret it!

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022).  How much physical activity do older adults need?
• Harvard Health Publishing. (2019).  Broader social interaction keeps older adults more active .
• Centers for Disease control and Prevention. (2022).  Facts About Falls .
• AARP. (2022).  Leisure Activities May Lower Dementia Risk .
• Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. (2008).  Active social life may delay memory loss among U.S. elderly population .
• AARP. (2022).  Can You Get Too Much Sleep?

Search Smartraveller

Latest update

We continue to advise:

Do not travel to Russia due to the security situation and the impacts of the military conflict with Ukraine.

Russia (PDF 2.04 MB)

Europe (PDF 2.62 MB)

Local emergency contacts

All emergency services, fire and rescue services, medical emergencies, advice levels.

Do not travel to Russia. 

Do not travel to Russia due to the dangerous security situation and the impacts of the military conflict with Ukraine. 

Do not travel to North Caucasus.

Do not travel to North Caucasus due to the high threat of terrorism and political unrest.

See Safety .

• Following the terrorist attack at the Crocus City Hall in Krasnogorsk near Moscow on 23 March, there's tightened security in Moscow, including at airports, railway stations, subway and other public transport. Moscow's theatres and museums are closed and all mass gatherings cancelled. Avoid the affected areas, monitor media and follow the advice of local authorities. 
• Terrorists are very likely to try to carry out attacks in Russia. Terrorist groups, including al-Qaeda and Daesh-aligned groups, continue to call for attacks in Russia. Attacks can be indiscriminate and may occur on or around seasonal, festive, or religious events in public places and could include popular tourist sites. Russia has seen several terrorist attacks, with many casualties, including in Moscow and St Petersburg. Russia's aviation has also been targeted. Attacks are likely in the North Caucasus region and the Georgia-Russia border area. Attacks may occur with little or no warning. Always be alert to possible threats and have a clear exit plan.
• Security incidents, such as drone attacks and explosions, often occur in southern and western areas of Russia, including regions bordering Ukraine, Moscow, and St Petersburg. This can cause significant flight delays and travel disruption. You shouldn't attempt to travel to the Russia-Ukraine border or cross into Ukraine from Russia.
• The security situation could deteriorate further with little warning. If you're in Russia, leave immediately using the limited commercial options available or private means if it's safe to do so. Departure routes from Russia may become disrupted at short notice, so have an alternate exit plan. 
• If you decide to stay in Russia, review your personal security plans. You're responsible for your own safety and that of your family. Our ability to provide consular assistance in Russia is limited. The Australian Government will not be able to evacuate you from Russia.
• There are limited transportation options, restrictions on financial transactions and possible shortages of essential products and services. 
• The Russian Government has introduced a 'medium response level' in several regions of Russia, including Krasnodar, Belgorod, Bryansk, Voronezh, Kursk, and Rostov and a 'heightened preparedness level' in the remainder of the Central and Southern Federal districts. A basic readiness level covers the rest of Russia. There may be an increase in security personnel and installations. Security measures or restrictions may be introduced with little to no notice. Monitor the media for developments. 
• Russian authorities have made strong, negative comments in relation to Western countries. Local authorities may adopt a more negative attitude towards foreigners in Russia in reaction to perceived support for Ukraine and sanctions on Russia. Non-participating bystanders can draw scrutiny from security forces and have been detained. Remain vigilant, avoid protests or demonstrations and avoid commenting publicly on political developments.
• Continue to follow the advice on Smartraveller. If you have significant concerns for your welfare or that of another Australian, contact the Consular Emergency Centre on 1300 555 135 in Australia or +61 2 6261 3305 outside Australia.

Full travel advice:  Safety

• Laws about the import and use of medicines are strict. You need a doctor's letter and a notarised translation confirming your need for each medication that contains restricted substances. Contact the  Embassy of Russia  for details.
• Rabies and tick-borne encephalitis are on the rise. Ticks are common from April to October. Take care when travelling through forests.
• Infectious diseases such as typhoid, hepatitis, diphtheria, measles and tuberculosis are a risk. Boil drinking water or drink bottled water.
• Public medical facilities in Russian cities are below Australian standards and basic in rural areas.

Full travel advice:  Health

• Russia may subject males it regards as Russian to mobilisation, regardless of any other citizenship held. Laws introducing heavy penalties for 'crimes against military service' have been passed. The Australian Government won't be able to intervene if you're subjected to mobilisation.
• Conscription occurs regularly in Russia. The Government may subject males it regards as Russian to mandatory conscription, regardless of any other citizenship held. From 1 January 2024, the maximum age of conscription will change from 27 to 30 years old. Russian authorities have also passed laws allowing for the draft notice to be serviced to the conscripts online, preventing conscripts from leaving the country once the notice is registered and sent.
• Russia has passed laws that severely inhibit free speech related to the current situation, imposing severe restrictions on the publishing and distribution of information related to the Russian armed forces and any military operations. Foreign journalists and other media workers in Russia may face considerable risks, including arrest and imprisonment. Don't share or publish information related to the current events in Ukraine and Russia.
• Russian authorities may enforce local laws in an arbitrary manner. You may be interrogated without cause by Russian officials and may become a victim of harassment, mistreatment, and extortion.
• Don't use or carry any illegal drugs. Penalties are severe. Carry your passport, visa and migration card at all times. Authorities won't accept copies.
• Don't take photos of military places or sensitive areas, such as passport control. It's also illegal to use commercial film, television, camera equipment or drones in public without permission. Hand-held video cameras are legal.
• Russia doesn't recognise dual nationals. We can only provide limited consular assistance to dual nationals who are arrested or detained. You'll need a valid Russian passport to leave.
• Same-sex relationships are technically legal but are not widely accepted. Violence against members of the LGBTI community occurs. Russia's parliament passed a law banning "LGBT propaganda", criminalising any act regarded as an attempt to promote what Russia calls "non-traditional sexual relations". The promotion of LGBTI issues may be considered illegal by local authorities, and activists may face consequences under Russian law. In July 2023, the Russian President signed a decree banning gender changes without medical requirements. The law also annuls marriages in which one person "changed gender" and prevents transgender couples from adopting children.
• Law enforcement agencies in Russia cooperate closely with agencies in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries. If you commit an offence in one of these countries, you may be detained in another (including at the border) and extradited for prosecution.

Full travel advice:  Local laws

• If you're in Russia, leave immediately using the limited commercial options available or private means if it's safe to do so. The security situation could deteriorate further with little warning. If you decide to stay in Russia, review your personal security plans. You're responsible for your own safety and that of your family. Have an alternate exit plan.
• Confirm with your transport operator that services are still operating if you plan to depart Russia. Commercial travel routes between Russia and Europe are often disrupted due to measures taken in response to military action in Ukraine. Several Russian airports are now closed to the public, disrupting internal flights to and from Moscow and other cities. The train and bus service between St Petersburg and Helsinki is suspended. 
• If you're travelling through an overland border crossing into  Finland ,  Estonia  or  Latvia , confirm the entry requirements for your destination before arrival. Finland has closed border crossings with Russia. Latvia introduced an entry ban on vehicles registered in Russia in September. From 1 February 2024, Russia will introduce a ban on vehicles crossing into/from Estonia at the Ivangorod- Narva crossing. Train service is also suspended. Entry and exit on foot will still be allowed. Additional restrictions or entry requirements could be imposed or changed suddenly. Be aware that some borders may close without notice. Australia and other countries have placed sanctions on Russia. Russia's response to these sanctions may disrupt travel and affect travellers.
• Russian airlines and railways may be affected by shortages of parts and essential technical components for their fleets, affecting maintenance and safety standards. Research your railway and aviation provider before choosing their services. The International Civil Aviation Organisation has issued a Significant Safety Concern (or 'red flag') notice regarding the capacity of Russian airlines to oversee safety. 
• If, despite our advice, you decide to enter Russia, expect thorough security checks at the border, including questioning and inspections of electronic devices. Entry requirements can change at short notice. Contact your airline or the nearest embassy or consulate of Russia to confirm entry requirements.
• Bank cards issued outside of Russia don't work in Russia. You won't be able to access funds from these cards once you enter Russia. You may not be able to exchange Australian dollars as well as old, worn, or damaged US dollar and euro banknotes into Russian rubles in Russia. Ensure you have enough money to cover your stay.
• Dual nationals can't leave Russia without a valid Russian passport. If your Russian passport expires while you're in Russia or if you enter Russia using a repatriation certificate, you'll need to get a new Russian passport before you leave. This can take up to 3 months. The Australian Government won't be able to intervene or fast-track this process.  

Full travel advice:  Travel

Local contacts

• The  Consular Services Charter  details what we can and can't do to help you overseas.
• For consular help, contact the  Australian Embassy  in Moscow. Our ability to provide consular assistance in Russia is limited due to the evolving security situation. The Australian Government will not be able to evacuate you from Russia.
• The Australian Consulate in St Petersburg can provide limited help.
• If you have significant concerns for your welfare or that of another Australian, contact the Consular Emergency Centre on 1300 555 135 in Australia or +61 2 6261 3305 outside Australia.

Full travel advice:  Local contacts

Full advice

Terrorists are very likely to try to carry out attacks in Russia. Terrorist groups, including al-Qaeda and Daesh-aligned groups, continue to call for attacks in Russia. Attacks can be indiscriminate and may occur on or   around seasonal, festive, or religious events in public places and could include popular tourist sites. Russia has seen a number of terrorist attacks which have caused large casualty numbers, including in Moscow and St Petersburg, and Russia's aviation has also been targeted. Attacks may occur with little or no warning. 

Russian authorities continue to announce arrests and the disruption of planned attacks.

Terrorists have attacked other European cities. Targets have included:

• places of worship
• government buildings
• shopping areas
• tourist sites
• restaurants
• entertainment venues
• transportation hubs
• major events which attract large crowds

To protect yourself from terrorism:

• be alert to possible threats, especially in public places
• be extra cautious around possible terrorist targets
• always have a clear exit plan
• report anything suspicious to the police
• monitor the media for any new threats
• take official warnings seriously and follow the instructions of local authorities

If there's an attack, leave the area as soon as it's safe. Avoid the affected area in case of secondary attacks.

Terrorism is a threat worldwide.

More information:

North Caucasus

There's a high threat of terrorism in parts of the North Caucasus, including:

• North Ossetia
• the south-eastern part of Stavropol bordering Chechnya
• Karbardino-Balkaria
• Karachay-Cherkessia

Terrorist attacks continue to occur in Chechnya. Several people have been killed and injured.

Our ability to provide consular assistance to Australians  in those parts of the North Caucasus  is limited.

If, despite our advice, you travel to these parts of the North Caucasus:

• monitor local conditions via media and travel operators
• arrange personal security measures

Georgia-Russia border

The Georgia-Russia border area is volatile because of tensions in Georgia.

If, despite our advice, you travel in the border region, read our  Georgia travel advice .

Security situation

Security incidents, such as drone attacks and explosions, often occur in southern and western areas of Russia, including regions bordering Ukraine, Moscow, and St Petersburg. This can cause significant flight delays and flight cancellations. You shouldn't attempt to travel to the Russia-Ukraine border or cross into Ukraine from Russia.

The security situation could deteriorate further with little warning. If you're in Russia, leave immediately using the limited commercial options available or private means if it's safe to do so. Departure routes from Russia may become disrupted at short notice. If you decide to stay in Russia, review your personal security plans. You're responsible for your own safety and that of your family.

The Russian Government has introduced a 'medium response level' in several regions of Russia, including Krasnodar, Belgorod, Bryansk, Voronezh, Kursk, and Rostov and a 'heightened preparedness level' in the remainder of the Central and Southern Federal districts. A basic readiness level has been introduced in the rest of Russia. There may be an increase in security personnel and installations. Security measures or restrictions may be introduced with little to no notice. Monitor the media for developments.

Ukraine border areas and Crimea

The Russia-Ukraine border is volatile due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.

Security incidents regularly occur in Belgorod, Bryansk, Kursk and other regions of Russia bordering Ukraine, including explosions and large fires. The security situation in the region could deteriorate at short notice. You shouldn't travel to the Russia-Ukraine border or cross into Ukraine from Russia.

We currently advise you do not travel to Ukraine due to the volatile security environment and military conflict. Read the  Ukraine travel advice   for more information.

The Australian Government doesn't recognise Russia's claimed annexation of the Ukrainian region of Crimea or its other territorial claims in occupied Ukraine.

Leaving Russia

Where it's safe to do so, you should leave Russia immediately. Use your judgment to decide the best time and safest means of exit. 

Transport routes may be disrupted. Plan for delays at land border crossings. Expect disruption to travel and changes at short notice. Make sure you have an adequate supply of food, water, medication and fuel. Make sure you have payment options that will work during your journey and at your destination. 

Read your destination's travel advice to ensure you meet the entry requirements. These may differ when entering by road, rail or air. Be aware that some borders may close without notice. Commercial travel routes between Russia and Europe have been impacted by measures taken in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Check with your airline or travel agent for current flight availability. Any travel options you pursue are at your own risk. See ' Travel '

For more information on entry requirements for countries bordering Russia, read the travel advice:

The European Union also has a website with  information on travel restrictions for people seeking to enter member states .

If you decide to stay in Russia:

• follow the instructions of authorities
• ensure your travel documents are up-to-date, and keep your passport and other travel documentation safe
• contact your family and friends in Australia so they're aware of your location and situation
• keep up to date with developments on the security situation, monitor reputable media, and regularly check our travel advice and  social media
• review your personal security plans and make contingency plans to leave as soon as you judge it safe to do so
• always be alert and aware of your surroundings
• avoid large gatherings and areas with groups of fighters and military equipment.

Civil unrest and political tension

Russia's parliament has passed laws that severely restrict free speech related to the current situation. Foreign journalists and other media workers in Russia may face considerable risks, including arrest and imprisonment.

While the effects of this law are still unclear, you may be detained or fined for:

• sharing or publishing information that local authorities deem false
• sharing or publishing information that may be detrimental to the armed forces
• calling for, sharing or publishing speech in support of sanctions against Russia

You should not:

• share or publish information related to the current events in Ukraine and Russia
• participate in demonstrations and large gatherings

Russian authorities may adopt a more negative attitude towards foreigners in Russia due to perceived support for Ukraine and sanctions on Russia. Russian authorities may enforce local laws in an arbitrary manner. You may be interrogated without cause by Russian officials and may become a victim of harassment, mistreatment, and extortion.

Avoid commenting publicly on political developments.

Anti-war and anti-mobilisation protests have taken place in cities across Russia over the invasion of Ukraine. Many protesters have been arrested.

Unsanctioned protests are illegal, and you can be arrested if you participate. Remain vigilant and avoid rallies, protests, demonstrations and other large public gatherings, as they can turn violent, and you may be arrested.

• Demonstrations and civil unrest

Theft and assault

Petty crime, pickpocketing and mugging is common. Groups of children sometimes commit crimes, too.

Hot spots for crime include:

• the Izmailovsky Market
• other tourist attractions
• the Moscow and St Petersburg metros

Thieves often steal passports. They target travellers in  robberies  and  assaults , particularly in large cities.

To protect yourself from theft and assault:

• keep your personal belongings close, particularly in tourist areas
• be aware of your security in public places, particularly at night
• monitor local media on crime
• racially or religiously motivated assaults may occur throughout Russia.

Drink spiking

Criminals may drug and rob travellers at nightclubs and bars. Sometimes this happens after people accept offers of food, drink or transportation from strangers.

To protect yourself from spiking-related crime:

• never accept food or drinks from strangers
• don't leave drinks unattended
• leave your drink if you're not sure it's safe
• stick with people you trust in bars, nightclubs and taxis
• don't accept offers of transport from strangers
• Partying safely

Using taxis

People have reported extortion and robbery while taking unauthorised taxis.

To protect yourself from robbery while travelling in taxis:

• only use official taxi companies
• always book your taxi in advance
• don't flag down taxis on the street
• don't share taxis with strangers
• always negotiate and confirm the fare before you get in a taxi

Credit card and ATM fraud

Credit card and ATM fraud is common.

To protect yourself from fraud:

• only exchange currency at banks
• keep your credit card in sight during transactions
• only use ATMs inside banks and during business hours
• always hide your PIN

Other scams

Criminals may try to cheat you by changing money in the street or a bank queue.

Some Australians have been victims of fraud by bogus internet friendship, dating and marriage schemes operating from Russia.

These are large-scale, well-organised  scams .

Criminals arrange to meet people through internet dating schemes or chat rooms. After getting to know each other, the criminal asks the Australian to send money so they can travel to Australia. However, the relationship ends after the money has been received, and the funds can't be recovered.

Be wary of people you meet through internet dating schemes or chat rooms.

People have also reported harassment, mistreatment and extortion by police and other local officials.

If you suspect you're being extorted by a police officer or other local official, offer to walk with them to the nearest police station. Once there, you can check their identity and their demands.

Cyber security 

You may be at risk of cyber-based threats during overseas travel to any country. Digital identity theft is a growing concern. Your devices and personal data can be compromised, especially if you're connecting to Wi-Fi, using or connecting to shared or public computers, or to Bluetooth. 

Social media can also be risky in destinations where there are social or political tensions or laws that may seem unreasonable by Australian standards. Travellers have been arrested for things they have said on social media. Don't comment on local or political events on your social media. 

More information:   

• Cyber security when travelling overseas  

Kidnapping  is common in parts of the Northern Caucasus.

It can be for:

• political purposes
• retribution

Foreigners have been targeted in the past.

If, despite the risks, you travel to an area where there is a particular threat of kidnapping:

• get professional security advice

The Australian Government's longstanding policy is that it doesn't make payments or concessions to kidnappers.

Climate and natural disasters

Severe weather  during winter can disrupt travel in Russia.

To protect yourself from accidents caused by severe weather:

• take care when walking in snowy, icy or windy conditions
• take care when driving
• use appropriate driving equipment, such as winter tyres or chains
• monitor the media and other sources for updates

If you're delayed, contact local authorities about a visa extension if required.

Snow and ice

People are injured or killed yearly in wind, snow and ice-related accidents. These include:

• traffic accidents
• collapsed roofs and snow falling from roofs 
• falling debris 
• prolonged exposure to extreme cold

Slipping on ice can result in serious injuries, such as broken bones, back injuries or paralysis.

During summer, forest and peat  fires  can occur in Russia, including in the Moscow region.

Earthquakes and tsunamis

The North Caucasus and the far eastern region of Russia can experience  earthquakes .

Tsunamis  are common in all oceanic regions of the world.

To protect yourself from natural disasters, take official warnings seriously.

If a  natural disaster  occurs, follow the advice of local authorities.

Get updates on major disasters from the  Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System .

Travel insurance

Most Australian travel insurance policies won't cover you for travel to Russia. Do not travel to Russia. See ' Safety '

If you're not insured, you may have to pay thousands of dollars up-front for medical care.

Physical and mental health

Do not travel to Russia. If, despite our advice, you travel to Russia, consider your physical and mental health before you travel, especially if you have an existing medical condition. 

See your doctor or travel clinic to:

• have a basic health check-up
• ask if your travel plans may affect your health
• plan any vaccinations you need

Do this at least eight weeks before you leave.

If you have immediate concerns for your welfare or the welfare of another Australian, call the 24-hour Consular Emergency Centre on +61 2 6261 3305 or contact your  nearest Australian Embassy, High Commission or Consulate  to discuss counselling hotlines and services available in your location.

• General health advice  (World Health Organization)
• Healthy holiday tips  (Healthdirect Australia)

Medications

Not all medication available over the counter or by prescription in Australia is available in other countries. Some may even be considered illegal or a controlled substance, even if prescribed by an Australian doctor. 

Russia has imposed temporary restrictions on exporting certain categories of goods, including foreign-made medical products. 

If you plan to bring medication, check if it's legal in Russia. Take enough legal medication for your trip.

Russia has strict laws about the import and use of medications. This includes medications that are available over the counter in Australia, such as cold and flu tablets.

When you arrive in Russia, you must present a doctor's letter to authorities confirming your need for each medication. This is the case if your medications contain the following:

• barbiturate
• sibutramine
• anabolic steroids
• androgens and other sex hormones
• analgesic, such as tramadol
• psychostimulants
• other restricted substances

The letter must:

• contain a description of the medication, including the chemical composition
• describe the required dosage
• explain the underlying medical condition
• confirm the medicine is for personal use only
• be signed by your treating doctor

You must also have a notarised translation of the letter into Russian.

Before you leave Australia, contact the Embassy of Russia for the latest rules for bringing medicines into Russia.

• Russian Government website

Health risks

Tick-borne diseases.

Tick-borne encephalitis  (World Health Organization) and other tick-borne diseases are a risk, especially if you travel through forested areas.

Ticks are common in rural areas from spring to autumn: April to October.

People have reported increased incidents of tick-borne encephalitis.

Measles cases can routinely occur in Russia, with the country currently experiencing increased measles activity. Make sure your vaccinations are up-to-date before you travel.

• Measles immunisation service  (Department of Health and Aged Care)

Bird flu (avian influenza)

Avian influenza  is a risk in Russia.

HIV/AIDS  is a risk.

Take steps to reduce your risk of exposure to the virus.

There has been a reported increase in  rabies  across Russia.

Rabies is deadly. Humans can get rabies from mammals, such as:

• other animals

If you're bitten or scratched by a dog, monkey or other animal, get treatment as soon as possible.

Other health risks

Waterborne, foodborne, parasitic and other  infectious diseases  are common, including these listed by the World Health Organization:

• tuberculosis

Serious outbreaks sometimes occur.

To protect yourself from illness:

• drink boiled water or bottled water with sealed lids
• avoid ice cubes
• avoid uncooked and undercooked food, such as salads
• avoid unpasteurised dairy products

Get urgent medical attention if you have a fever or diarrhoea or suspect food poisoning.

Medical facilities

Public medical facilities in Russian cities are below Australian standards.

Standards are extremely basic in rural areas.

There are a few international-standard private facilities in major cities – these clinics can be very expensive to access.

Before you're treated, private facilities need either:

• up-front payment
• evidence of adequate insurance
• a written guarantee of payment

If you become seriously ill or injured, you'll need to be evacuated to get proper care. Medical evacuation can be very expensive.

You're subject to all local laws and penalties, including those that may appear harsh by Australian standards. Research local laws before travelling.

In July, the Russian President signed a decree banning gender changes, including gender transition surgery, hormone therapy and changing gender on official documents without medical requirements. The law also annuls marriages in which one person "changed gender" and prevents transgender couples from adopting children.

In November 2022, Russia's parliament passed a law banning "LGBT propaganda", criminalising any act regarded as an attempt to promote what Russia calls "non-traditional sexual relations". Sharing information or public display of any material promoting "non-traditional relationships" is now a serious criminal offence.

In November 2022, Russia announced that the partial mobilisation of military reservists for the conflict in Ukraine was complete. However, a decree formalising the completion has not been issued. The Russian Government may subject males it regards as Russian to mobilisation, regardless of any other citizenship held. Laws introducing heavy penalties for 'crimes against military service' have been passed. The Australian Government will not be able to intervene if you are subjected to mobilisation.

The US Government issued travel advice in March 2022 advising that Russian security services have arrested US citizens on spurious charges, singled out US citizens in Russia for detention and/or harassment, denied them fair and transparent treatment, and have convicted them in secret trials and/or without presenting credible evidence. The US Government warns that Russian officials may unreasonably delay consular assistance to detained US citizens.

Russian authorities have introduced criminal liability for publishing and distributing 'deliberately misleading' information about the Russian armed forces and any military operations. These laws have been interpreted and applied very broadly to many forms of dissent.

Law enforcement agencies in Russia cooperate closely with agencies in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries. If you commit an offence in one of these countries, you may be detained in another (including at the border) and extradited for prosecution. 

If you're arrested or jailed, the Australian Government will do what it can to help you under our  Consular Services Charter . But we can't get you out of trouble or out of jail.

Russian authorities imposed restrictions on real estate and foreign currency transactions for foreign residents. These restrictions can be revised at short notice. Seek advice from local authorities.

Possessing, selling, consuming, or carrying any illegal drugs is illegal.

Penalties are severe and include long prison terms.

Russia has strict rules around medication carried into the country for personal use, including some medications that you can get over the counter in Australia.

If you don't declare restricted medications, authorities could detain you. See  Health .

• Carrying or using drugs

Routine police checks are common in public places.

Carry your passport, visa and migration card with you at all times. Authorities won't accept copies.

If you can't provide travel documentation on request, authorities can detain and fine you.

In Russia, it's illegal to:

• take photos of military places, strategic sites and other sensitive areas, such as passport control and guarded railway sites
• use commercial film, television or camera equipment in public areas without permission, but hand-held home video cameras are allowed
• use drones without permission from the Russian aviation authority.

Penalties for breaching the law include fines, jail and deportation.

Russia regulates religious activity. Authorities restrict activities such as preaching and distributing religious materials.

If you plan to engage in religious activity, ensure you're not breaking local laws.

Contact the Embassy or Consulate of Russia for more information.

Cybersecurity laws

Russia has blocked or restricted some social media platforms and websites, including Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn and Twitter.

Russia has banned certain Virtual Private Networks (VPN) and has indicated it will implement a nationwide ban on VPNs in March 2025.

• Cyber security when travelling overseas
• Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media (Roskomnadzor)

Official documents

Some Australian documents, such as birth or marriage certificates, need to be  legalised  before Russian authorities will accept them.

If you have an Australian document that you need to use while in Russia, contact the Embassy or Consulate of Russia for information.

Apostilles  and some legal certificates can be issued by:

• DFAT  in Australia
• Australian embassies and high commissions  overseas

Surrogacy laws

Russia has laws governing child surrogacy and has passed legislation banning surrogacy for all foreigners except those married to Russian citizens. Recent court cases have resulted in long custodial sentences for some providers of surrogacy services. All children born through surrogacy in Russia are granted Russian citizenship, regardless of their parent's citizenship.

Get independent legal advice before making surrogacy arrangements in Russia or with residents of Russia.

• Going overseas for international surrogacy
• Going overseas to adopt a child

Australian laws

Some Australian criminal laws still apply when you're overseas. If you break these laws, you may face prosecution in Australia.

• Staying within the law and respecting customs

Dual nationality

Russia doesn't recognise dual nationality.

In November 2022, Russia announced that the partial mobilisation of military reservists for the conflict in Ukraine was complete. However, a decree formalising the completion hasn't been issued. Russia may subject males it regards as Russian to mobilisation, regardless of any other citizenship held. Laws introducing heavy penalties for 'crimes against military service' have been passed. The Australian Government won't be able to intervene if you are subjected to mobilisation.

Conscription occurs regularly, and Russia may subject males it regards as Russian to mandatory conscription, regardless of any other citizenship held. Conscription in Russia occurs semi-annually, and conscripts typically serve one year. From 1 January 2024, the maximum conscription age will change from 27 to 30 years old. Russian authorities have also passed laws allowing for the draft notice to be serviced to the conscripts online and preventing conscripts from leaving the country once the notice is registered and sent.

Russian authorities won't recognise your Australian nationality if you're a dual national. They will treat you like any other national of Russia.

If you're a dual national:

• you must enter and leave Russia on a Russian passport
• you can enter Russia using a repatriation certificate (svidetelstvo na vozvrashcheniye) if you don't have a Russian passport, but you must still leave Russia on a Russian passport
• you must declare any other nationalities or foreign residency permits to the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs
• you could be conscripted into the Russian military if you're a male between the ages of 18 and 30 

If you're a dual national, this limits the  consular services  we can give if you're arrested or detained.

Contact the  Embassy or Consulate of Russia  well before any planned travel to Russia.

Dual nationals can't leave Russia without a valid Russian passport.

You'll need to get a new Russian passport before you leave if:

• your Russian passport expires while you're in Russia
• you enter Russia using a repatriation certificate

Getting a new Russian passport for non-residents is complex and can take up to 3 months. The Australian Government is unable to intervene or fast-track this process.

Children born outside Russia and added to their parents' Russian passports need their own passport to leave Russia.

If you're travelling alone with a child, Russian border authorities may require the following:

• documentary evidence of your relationship to the child
• written permission for the child to travel from the non-travelling parent
• Dual nationals

Local customs

Same-sex relationships are legal in Russia but not widely accepted.

Intolerance towards the LGBTI community is common, particularly outside Moscow and St Petersburg.

People have reported violence against members of the LGBTI community, including by local security forces.

In April 2017, there were reports of arrests and violence against LGBTI people in Chechnya.

In November 2022, Russia passed a law banning "LGBT propaganda", criminalising any act regarded as an attempt to promote what Russia calls "non-traditional sexual relations". Sharing or displaying material promoting "non-traditional relationships" is now a serious criminal offence. The bill broadens the existing law banning the promotion of 'non-traditional sexual relationships' to minors.

• Advice for LGBTI travellers

Visas and border measures

Every country or territory decides who can enter or leave through its borders. For specific information about the evidence you'll need to enter a foreign destination, check with the nearest embassy, consulate or immigration department of the destination you're entering. 

Australia and other countries have placed sanctions on Russia. Russia's response to these sanctions may disrupt travel and affect travellers.

You need a visa to enter Russia unless you're travelling on certain commercial cruise ships.

You can't get a visa on arrival.

If you arrive in Russia without a valid visa, authorities will fine, detain and deport you at your own expense. They may bar you from re-entering.

Make sure you apply for the correct visa type, such as 'tourist' and 'visitor' visas.

If your visa type doesn't match the purpose of your visit, authorities may:

• not let you enter 

You may need to provide biometric fingerprints for the visa application process.

After you get your Russian visa, check your passport details are correct, including the following:

• passport number
• date of birth
• intention of stay
• validity dates

If there are errors, return your passport to the  Russian Embassy or Consulate  for correction.

It's impossible to amend visa details once you're in Russia.

Australians sanctioned by Russia

The Russian Foreign Ministry issued statements on its website advising that, in response to Australian sanctions, the Russian Government had added several Australians to a 'stop list', denying them entry into Russia on an indefinite basis.  

These statements can be viewed here (copy and paste the URL into a new browser if you can't open the link):

• 21 June 2023 statement -   https://mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/1890258/
• 16 September 2022 statement  -  https://mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/news/1830085/  (in Russian)
• 21 July 2022 statement  -  https://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/1823204/
• 16 June 2022 statement  -  https://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/1818118/
• 7 April 2022 statement  -  https://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/1808465/

DFAT can't provide advice on the implications of another country's sanctions. If you're listed, you should obtain legal advice if you have concerns about the potential impacts of the Russian sanctions. Do not travel to Russia if you're on Russia's 'stop list'. 

Discuss your travel plans with your cruise operator before you travel to check if you need a visa.

Check transit visa requirements if you transit through Russia to a third country.

• Russian Embassy
• Going on a cruise

Border measures

If, despite our advice, you decide to enter Russia, expect thorough security checks at the border, including questioning and inspections of electronic devices.

Entry and exit conditions can change at short notice. Contact the nearest  embassy or consulate  for details about visas, currency, customs and quarantine rules.

Other formalities

Migration card.

All foreign visitors receive a migration card on arrival in Russia.

If you receive a paper migration card, keep the stamped exit portion of the card with your passport.

The migration card covers both Russia and Belarus. You must show the stamped card to passport control when leaving either country.

If you lose your migration card:

• your departure could be delayed
• you could be stopped from staying at a hotel in Russia

You can get a replacement from the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs, which is complex and could delay your departure.

Biometric fingerprinting

Foreign citizens entering Russia for work or intending to stay over 90 calendar days may be subject to biometric fingerprinting and regular medical check-ups. The procedure of biometric fingerprinting will need to be done only once. Medical check-ups will need to be re-taken upon the certificate's expiry (valid for 1 year).

Travel with children

If you're  travelling with a child , you may need to show evidence of parental, custodial or permission rights. This is particularly the case for dual nationals. See  Local laws

• Advice for people travelling with children

Electronics

The government strictly controls the import of electrical and some high-technology equipment.

The rules are complex.

You may import terminal global positioning systems (GPS) devices if you declare them on arrival. However, you'll need a special permit to import a GPS device connected to a computer or an antenna.

Authorities can detain you if you don't have a permit.

You must show proof of advanced approval to import a satellite phone. Request approval from the  Federal Service for the Supervision of Communications .

Russian border officials can demand to inspect any electronic device, including installed software when you leave.

Travel between Russia and Belarus

Do not travel to Russia and Belarus due to the security environment and impacts of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. If you’re in Russia or Belarus, leave immediately using the limited commercial options available or private means if it's safe to do so.

If, despite our advice, you decide to enter Belarus from Russia, note that the government doesn't allow foreigners to cross the land border between Russia and Belarus.

If you travel between Russia and Belarus, it must be by air.

If you're travelling between Russia and Belarus, you must have visas for both countries.

Visa-free entry into Belarus doesn't apply to travellers arriving from or travelling to Russia.

Contact the  Embassy of Russia  and the  Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Belarus  for details.

Registering your stay in Russia

If you stay more than 7 working days, including your arrival and departure day, you must register with the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs.

You have to pay a registration fee.

Most hotels do this for their guests, but you're legally responsible. Confirm with check-in staff on arrival that they've registered you.

The registration process can be complex if you're not staying at a hotel.

Register at the nearest post office if you're travelling on a visitor visa.

Register through your employer if you're travelling on a visa that lets you work. Confirm with your employer that they've registered you.

If you don't register, authorities can fine you or delay your departure.

• The Russian Embassy

Visa overstays

Make sure you leave Russia before your visa expires. Some visas, including tourist visas, can't be extended.

If you overstay your visa, you won't be allowed to leave Russia until the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs determines your legal status or deports you.

Authorities can detain you until they've processed your case.

Penalties for overstaying include fines and deportation.

You may be banned from re-entering.

Exporting goods

Russia has imposed temporary restrictions on exporting certain categories of goods, including foreign-made medical products. Seek advice from local authorities.

Russia has strict regulations on the export of antiques, artworks and items of historical significance. This is for items purchased in Russia or imported to Russia from overseas. It includes modern art and posters if they are particularly rare or valuable.

Authorities may not allow the export of items more than 100 years old.

If you want to export any antiques, artworks or items of historical significance:

• keep receipts of your purchases
• obtain an export permit from the Ministry of Culture in advance of travel — export permits aren't issued at the airport
• declare each item to border authorities when you leave Russia
• be ready to show each item to border authorities
• be ready to show receipts for each item to border authorities

Don't try to export items requiring permits without the relevant paperwork. This is a serious offence.

Legislation about the export of artwork and antiques from Russia may change without warning.

Some countries won't let you enter unless your passport is valid for six months after you plan to leave that country. This can apply even if you're just transiting or stopping over.

Some foreign governments and airlines apply the rule inconsistently. Travellers can receive conflicting advice from different sources.

You can end up stranded if your passport is not valid for more than six months.

The Australian Government does not set these rules. Check your passport's expiry date before you travel. If you're not sure it'll be valid for long enough, consider getting  a new passport .

Lost or stolen passport

Your passport is a valuable document. It's attractive to people who may try to use your identity to commit crimes.

Some people may try to trick you into giving them your passport. Always keep it in a safe place.

If your passport is lost or stolen, tell the Australian Government as soon as possible:

• In Australia, contact the  Australian Passport Information Service .
• If you're overseas, contact the nearest  Australian embassy or consulate .

If your passport is lost or stolen while ashore, you will need to obtain an emergency passport and an exit visa to leave Russia within the 72-hour visa-free period. If it’s not done within 72 hours, you will face a court hearing and possible fine, deportation and entry ban.

To arrange a new visa:

• obtain an official police report
• apply for a replacement passport through the  Australian Embassy in Moscow
• apply to Russian authorities for an exit visa
• include the police report with your application

If you replace your passport while in Russia, make sure authorities transfer your visa to the new passport.

Passport with 'X' gender identifier

Although Australian passports comply with international standards for sex and gender, we can't guarantee that a passport showing 'X' in the sex field will be accepted for entry or transit by another country. Contact the nearest  embassy, high commission or consulate of your destination  before you arrive at the border to confirm if authorities will accept passports with 'X' gender markers. 

More information:  

•       LGBTI travellers  

The currency of Russia is the Rouble (RUB).

Russian authorities have imposed temporary restrictions on the export of foreign currency in cash out of Russia. Travellers exiting Russia can't take more than the equivalent of $US10,000 in cash.

Make sure a customs official stamps your declaration. Only stamped declarations are valid.

You must carry proof that your funds were imported and declared or legally obtained in Russia.

Due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Mastercard, Visa, and American Express have suspended operations in Russia. Cards issued outside of Russia will not work at Russian merchants or ATMs. Cards issued inside Russia may continue to work, but they won't work outside Russia. It may not be possible for you to access your funds through Russian banks or to make payments to Russian businesses with non-Russian credit/debit cards. Be prepared with alternate means of payment should your cards be declined.

You may not be able to exchange Australian dollars as well as old, worn or damaged US dollar and euro banknotes into Russian rubles in Russia. Ensure you have enough money to cover your stay in Russia. 

Traveller's cheques aren't widely accepted, even in Moscow and St Petersburg.

Local travel

Postal services between Russia and Australia are temporarily suspended. 

More information 

• Australia Post website

Confirm with your transport operator that services are still operating if you plan to depart Russia. Commercial travel routes between Russia and Europe are disrupted. Expect thorough security checks at the border, including questioning and inspections of electronic devices.

Flights between Russia and Europe have been affected by measures taken in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Several Russian airports are now closed to the public, disrupting internal flights to and from Moscow and other cities. The train and bus service between St Petersburg and Helsinki is suspended.

If you're travelling through an overland border crossing into  Finland ,  Estonia  or  Latvia , confirm the entry requirements for your destination before arrival. Finland has closed border crossings with Russia. This situation may change at short notice, check border crossings before attempting to cross .  

In September, Latvia introduced an entry ban on vehicles registered in Russia. More information can be found on the State Revenue Service website . From 1 February 2024, Russia  will introduce a ban on vehicles crossing into/from Estonia at Ivangorod- Narva crossing. Train service is also suspended. Entry and exit on foot will still be allowed. Additional restrictions or entry requirements could be imposed or changed suddenly. Be aware that some borders may close without notice.

Australia and other countries have placed sanctions on Russia. Russia's response to these sanctions may disrupt travel and affect travellers. Confirm entry requirements for your  destination  before arrival, as additional restrictions or entry requirements could be imposed or changed suddenly.

If, despite our advice, you decide to go to Chechnya or the North Caucasus, you must first get permission from the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs.

Several other areas of Russia, especially in Siberia and the Russian Far East, are also 'closed' areas.

Foreigners need government permission to enter 'closed' areas.

If you need government permission or are unsure if you need it, contact the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs.

Driving permit

You should carry an International Driving Permit (IDP).

You may drive with an Australian driver's license if you carry it with a notarised Russian translation.

Road travel

Driving in Russia can be hazardous due to:

• poor driving standards
• ice and snow in winter
• poor road conditions in rural areas

The blood alcohol limit for drivers is 0%.

• Driving or riding
• the Russian Embassy

Some taxis appear official but aren't licensed by local authorities.

People have reported extortion and  robbery  while taking unauthorised taxis. See  Safety

Book an official taxi by phone, at major hotels and from inside airports.

Flights from Russia to other countries are limited. These may change or be suspended at short notice. You should contact airlines or travel agents directly for the most current information.

The  EU announced  that 21 Russian-owned airlines were banned from flying in EU airspace due to safety concerns.

Russian airlines and railways may be affected by shortages of parts and essential technical components for their fleets, affecting maintenance and safety standards. If you're flying domestically or internationally, research your aviation provider before choosing their services.

DFAT doesn't provide information on the safety of individual commercial airlines or flight paths.

Check Russia's air safety profile with the  Aviation Safety Network

Emergencies

Depending on what you need, contact your:

• family and friends
• travel agent
• insurance provider

Always get a police report when you report a crime.

Your insurer should have a 24-hour emergency number.

Consular contacts

Read the  Consular Services Charter  for what the Australian Government can and can't do to help you overseas.

For consular help, contact the Australian Embassy in Moscow.  Our ability to provide consular assistance in Russia is limited. The Australian Government will not be able to evacuate you from Russia.

Australian Embassy, Moscow

13 Kropotkinsky Pereulok Moscow 119034 Russia Phone: (+7 495) 956-6070  Fax: (+7 495) 956-6170  Website:  russia.embassy.gov.au Twitter:  @PosolAustralia

If you're in St Petersburg, you can also contact the Australian Consulate for limited consular help.

Australian Consulate, St Petersburg

Moika 11 St Petersburg 191186 Russia Tel: (+7 964) 333 7572 (NOT for visas) Email:  [email protected]  (NOT for visas)

Check the Embassy website for details about opening hours and any temporary closures.

24-hour Consular Emergency Centre

Australians in need of consular assistance should contact the Australian Government 24-hour Consular Emergency Centre:

• +61 2 6261 3305 from overseas
• 1300 555 135 in Australia

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• v.14(3); 2022 Mar

Suicidality Among Men in Russia: A Review of Recent Epidemiological Data

Val bellman.

1 Psychiatry, University of Missouri, Kansas City School of Medicine, Kansas City, USA

Vaishalee Namdev

2 Medicine and Surgery, Mahatma Gandhi Medical College and Research Institute, Indore, IND

Suicide is a phenomenon that is not related to a specific class of countries but is a problem worldwide. Many studies have attempted to explain gender differences in suicidal behaviors. Unfortunately, Russia holds the world’s top place for the number of suicides committed by its male citizens. Russia is still demonstrating unusually high death rates due to non-natural causes, and these demographic trends are concerning. We analyzed suicidality among men in Russia over the past 20 years using official data published by the Federal State Statistics Service (Rosstat) and secondary sources. We also discussed male suicide as a social problem, analyzed, and evaluated male suicidality in Russia from 2000 to 2020, and reviewed the factors influencing the prevalence of male suicides over female suicides in Russia.

Russia is still going through one of the most significant historical changes in the last 100 years. Our analysis showed discrepancies between official numbers and data published by non-government organizations in Russia. Unemployment, low socioeconomic status, underdiagnosed and/or untreated mental illness, and substance abuse are major risk factors for suicide in Russian men. Cultural influences also make suicidal behavior socially scripted in Russia.

By providing examples and analyzing data, we aspire to encourage improvements in the practice of mental wellbeing in Russia and other post-Soviet countries. The recommendations within this report are intended as a starting point for dialogue to guide effective suicide prevention in this country.

Introduction

Suicides and self-harming behaviors are significant public health and social problems in post-Soviet Russia. Suicide is one of the leading causes of death worldwide [ 1 ], accounting for over 58,000 deaths annually in Europe [ 2 ] and 16,546 deaths in Russia in 2020 [ 3 ]. According to experts, there are 11.4 suicides per 100,000 people in the world, which equates to 804,000 suicides annually [ 4 ]. Although the suicide rates in Russia are gradually decreasing (39.1/100,000 in 2000 to 23.4/100,000 in 2010 and 11.3/100,000 in 2020 [ 3 ]), the number of suicides among men is significantly higher than among Russian females [ 5 , 6 ].

The suicide rates vary greatly between Russian cities and within the country, and the difference between regions varies tenfold. The suicide rates are higher in rural communities when compared with their urban counterparts. Social deprivation, economic depression, unemployment, heavy alcohol consumption, etc. are also more prevalent in rural areas of Russia. Indigenous peoples around the country are burdened with a markedly increased suicide rate, which may be associated with a challenging social situation, inadequate family support, lower socioeconomic status, and an increased prevalence of alcohol and psychoactive substances, which also act as suicide risk factors in general [ 7 , 8 ]. The suicide rates among men in Russia (26.1 per 100,000) were over three times higher than among women (6.9 per 100,000) in 2016. Committing suicide appears to be a male phenomenon over the past 20 years in post-Soviet Russia [ 9 ]. For suicide attempts, the level estimated by the World Health Organization (WHO) is 20 times higher than the suicide rate [ 10 ]; the gender gap is less pronounced.

This phenomenon, when men commit suicide more frequently than women while women are much likelier to commit suicide attempts, is known as the gender paradox of suicidal behavior [ 2 , 6 ]. All Russian citizens are expected to receive medical care that meets the highest standards, regardless of their race, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, gender identity, or expression. Although the Russian healthcare system remains gender-neutral, Russian men are not considered a “risk” group and are not involved in targeted state-sponsored suicide prevention programs [ 11 ].

Materials and methods

Data on the population and male suicide rates were taken from the official reports of Rosstat and the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation for 2001-2020. Secondary data were obtained from international databases and published studies in Russian and English. We used descriptive statistics to summarize the information about the population being studied. This methodology helped us summarize data in the form of simple quantitative measures, such as percentages and means, or visual summaries, such as diagrams and bar charts. The literature review attempted to bring together all available evidence on a specific, clearly defined topic.

Published studies were identified through ‘pearl growing’, citation chasing, a search of databases, using the filters, and the authors’ topic knowledge. The articles were searched in MEDLINE, PubMed, EMBASE, COCHRANE, eLibrary, and CyberLeninka. A search of databases was undertaken in December 2021 using predefined keywords. Citation chasing was conducted by analyzing the references for each included study. A total of 122 potential papers were identified. We also included at least 20 Russian biomedical journals listed in databases, which were translated into English. The summary document contained the list of included and excluded articles; the inclusion status for each article was based on a review of the full-text manuscript. The inclusion criteria were articles with the target population, specific location, investigated epidemiological trends, or the comparison between two-to-three studied regions (cities, states, or districts). Exclusion criteria were unrelated, duplicated, unavailable full texts published before 2001. Data were abstracted from 60 eligible papers. Some of these sources had English-language abstracts, but other articles’ texts had to be translated. The evidence was graded for each source based on the quantity and quality of studies and potential data flaws. The quality, validity, and type of published data were considered. 

The citation management system EndNote allowed us to organize our literature databases with internet searches and have add-ons for Office programs, which made the process of literature citation convenient. However, the majority of articles in Russian could not be captured by the citation management system. Additionally, the search for article content was sometimes unavailable for search engines. The authors had to enter this information manually to ensure consistency in the referencing of studies. Some Russian sources were originally published as extensive PDF files of the entire journal issue without dividing it into separate articles and providing no descriptors, making manual, time-consuming input of information the only possibility.

Not only are men likelier to die of suicide than women between the ages of 10 and 60 years, but the suicide rate among men also grows with every decade of life, reaching a peak at 50 [ 12 , 13 ]. Russian men become increasingly inclined to commit suicide before their 60th birthday, usually via firearms or strangulation. Although men aged 60, 70, and 80 die from suicide less often than men aged 40 to 59, gender differences prevail. The suicide rate among men over 60 is about 30 cases, compared to about 10 (per 100,000 people) among women of the same age [ 11 , 12 ]. 

Official data illustrate that suicide rates among men have gradually decreased over the past 20 years. While in 2000 it was 68.4 cases per 100,000 people, in 2010, it was 41 cases per 100,000 people, gradually decreasing to 29.3, 27.6, 21.7, 20.5, and 19.8 cases in 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, and 2020, respectively, per 100,000 people. Suicide mortality among women is significantly lower than among men. In 2015-2016, it was nearly four times lower than among men and amounted to 7.5 and 7.1 cases per 100,000 people, respectively, in 2015 and 2016. The suicide rate among men in 2000-2020 per 100,000 people is shown in Figure ​ Figure1 1 [ 3 ].

According to official data, the suicide rate among all age groups decreased. In recent years, the suicide rate among adult men has varied. Data demonstrate that the suicide rate among men increases with every decade of life, reaching a peak of 50 years. Thus, at the age of 15-19 years, the mortality rate from suicide among men was 10-12 cases in 2015-2016 per 100,000 people, at the age of 20-24 years: 18-20 cases, 25-29 years: 24-26 cases, 30-34 years: 31-35 cases, 35-39 years: 37-40 cases, and reaching a maximum in the age group of 50-54 years at 38-41 cases, then decreases gradually. Figure ​ Figure2 2 summarizes data on male suicide mortality in 2015-2016, depending on the age per 100,000 people [ 12 ].

The data show that the suicide mortality rate among the male population in various age groups has been steadily decreasing since 2002. Between 2000-2003, all age groups of the male population demonstrated a growth in the number of suicide cases. It peaked in this period (2000-2020), except for the 15-29 age group. Between 2004 and 2010, there was the fastest decline in the suicide mortality rate among the male population in different age groups, after which the rate of decline in the mortality rate slowed, which may have been due to the financial and economic crisis in Russia (2008-2010). Figures ​ Figures3 3 - ​ -5 5 summarize the changes in the suicide mortality rate among men in different age groups in 2000-2020 [ 3 ].

Between 2000-2020, the male suicide rate was variable across all levels of urbanization with higher rates in nonmetropolitan/rural areas than in medium or large metropolitan clusters. Geographic disparities (specific federal districts versus Russia overall) in suicide rates might reflect suicide risk factors known to be prevalent in less urban areas, such as limited access to mental health care, social isolation, and substance abuse.

Official data show that in 2015-2017, the suicide mortality rates among the male population in the Central Federal District, the city of Moscow, and the North Caucasian Federal District were lower than the average for the Russian Federation. The lowest rates were seen in the city of Moscow and the North Caucasian Federal District. In the Northwestern Federal District, suicide mortality rates among the male population were about the same as those in the Russian Federation overall. In the Volga Federal District, Ural Federal District, Siberian Federal District, and Far Eastern Federal District, suicide mortality rates among the male population were higher than the average in Russia. Figure ​ Figure6 6 summarizes the male suicide mortality rates in various federal districts and the Russian Federation in 2015-2017 [ 11 , 12 ]. 

Interestingly, Mal et al. (2020) stated that the highest suicide mortality rates were in five Russian federal districts: Northwestern, Volga, Ural, Siberian, and Far Eastern; however, their analysis focused on suicide mortality rates in general. Additionally, the authors indicated that suicide mortality rates were significantly lower in Central, Southern, and North Caucasian Federal Districts [ 14 ].

The impact of urbanization on suicidality in Russian men and on the mental health of the general population remains underestimated [ 15 ]. The highest degree of urbanization was recorded in the Northwestern Federal District of Russia, where almost 85 percent of the inhabitants lived in city areas. The extent to which the suicide rate in urban areas is influenced by exposure to risk factors other than urbanization remains unknown due to a lack of data. The lowest male suicide mortality rates in the Northwestern Federal District are seen in the city of St. Petersburg, where these numbers are lower than the indicators for the Northwestern Federal District. Suicide mortality rates among the male population in the Northwestern Federal District decreased in 2015-2017. The most significant decrease occurred in the Novgorod region. Figure ​ Figure7 7 shows the suicide mortality rates among the male population in various regions of the Northwestern Federal District in 2015-2017 [ 11 , 12 ].

Interestingly, the regions located in the Northern Caucasus demonstrate significantly lower male suicide rates compared to the rest of the nation [ 16 ]. These numbers and demographic trends were noted almost 20 years ago and remain consistent with our data. The published data suggest that the highest suicide mortality rates among the male population in the North Caucasian Federal District were in the Republic of Alania, being higher than the indicators for the North Caucasian Federal District by about 15%. The lowest male suicide mortality rates were in the Republic of Ingushetia. The numbers are lower than these indicators for the whole North Caucasian Federal District by over two times. These male suicide mortality rates are the lowest of those discussed in this report. However, higher suicide rates were found among male soldiers who served in the Chechen wars and/or were actively serving in other areas of the Caucasus [ 17 ]. Figure ​ Figure8 8 shows suicide mortality rates among the male population in various regions of the North Caucasian Federal District in 2015-2017 [ 11 , 12 ].

Interestingly, the Russian Southern Federal District borders the republics of the North Caucasus. While some parts of that district are ethnically like the North Caucasus, the male suicide mortality rates are like other regions of Russia with a predominantly Slavic population. Data on male suicide mortality rates in various regions of the Southern Federal District from 2015-2017 showed a gradual tendency to decrease, but those numbers are still significantly higher than in the North Caucasus region. In the Republic of Kalmykia, suicide mortality rates among the male population in 2015-2017 were higher than in the Southern Federal District by about 20%. In the Rostov region, suicide mortality rates among the male population in 2015-2017 were about 15% lower than those in the Southern Federal District. Figure ​ Figure9 9 illustrates suicide mortality rates among the male population in various regions of the Southern Federal District in 2015-2017. 

The Central Federal District is located in the center of the European part of Russia. It is the district with the highest density of population in Russia-60.30 people per square kilometer: a high level of urbanization, as about 50% of the population lives in the Moscow region. This region has a high level of economic and social activity and a presumably better socioeconomic situation. However, male suicide mortality rates vary between cities. Suicide mortality rates among the male population in the Belgorod Region and the city of Moscow were lower than in the whole Central Federal District. In the Kursk and Moscow regions, mortality rates were about the same as in the Central Federal District, especially in 2017. In the regions of Bryansk, Vladimir, Voronezh, Ivanovo, Kaluga, Smolensk, Tver, and Yaroslavl, suicide mortality rates among the male population were higher than in the Central Federal District. In 2015-2017, nearly all regions of the Central Federal District demonstrated decreased male suicide mortality rates. The fastest rates of decline were observed in the regions of Belgorod, Kursk, Smolensk, and Tver. In the Voronezh region, there was an increase in the death rate from suicide among the male population. In Moscow in 2016, the suicide mortality rate increased among the male population compared to 2015. In 2017, this index dropped again. Males aged 55 years and older were more likely to die from suicide than any other age group for both males and females. Figure ​ Figure10 10 shows male suicide mortality rates in various regions of the Central Federal District and the Russian Federation in 2015-2017 [ 11 , 12 ].

The red column (4.3) is the suicide mortality rate among the female population in Moscow in 2016 [ 11 , 12 ]

Male suicides in the Volga Federal District showed a linear trend of decline in 2015-2017, despite the risk factors for suicide generally increasing. The most significant decrease in male suicide mortality rates among the male population was observed in the Saratov region, which initially showed an unexpected increase in male suicide rates (higher than in the Volga Federal District by about 23%) [ 11 , 12 ]. Suicide mortality rates among the male population in the Ural Federal District in 2015-2017 also showed a tendency to decrease [ 11 , 12 ]. 

Social marginalization and depopulation are particularly widespread in regions of the Asian part of the country. Despite the implementation of additional state-run social and demographic incentives, the impoverishment of human capital is still evident in this region. This region is far removed from Russia’s European core and financial centers but remains uncomfortably close to dynamic and powerful China. Despite the oil and gas resources of East Siberia and the Far East Federal District, its regional product amounts to just 5-6 percent of Russia’s total gross domestic product (GDP). 

These two regions have long been known as underdeveloped and socially challenging. Despite these circumstances, the suicide mortality rates among the male population in the Siberian Federal District (SFD) in 2015-2017 also showed a tendency to decrease. The most significant decrease in suicide mortality rates among the male population occurred in the Altai Republic. In the Krasnoyarsk Region, the Irkutsk region, the indicators were fairly even, like the rates for the Siberian Federal District. Interestingly, in Omsk, suicide mortality rates among the male population in 2015-2017 were about 10% lower than those in the entire Siberian Federal District. The official data show that the highest male suicide mortality rates in the Far Eastern Federal District were in the Amur and Sakhalin Regions, being higher than these rates for the Far Eastern Federal District by 28% and 23%, respectively. Interestingly, the lowest male suicide mortality rates were in the Kamchatsky Territory, where these numbers were lower than the indicators for the Far Eastern Federal District by about 10-15%. Figures ​ Figures11 11 and 12 summarize data regarding male suicide mortality rates in various regions of the SFD and the Far Eastern Federal District in 2015-2017 [ 11 , 12 ]. 

Data accuracy issues 

According to the World Bank, Russia ranks third in the world in the suicide mortality rate, and this rate in 2019 was 25.10/100,000 per year. However, this rate is disproportionally higher for men. It is important to mention that these rates have been declining over the past 20 years. The available data highlight that the suicide mortality rate among Russian men was as high as 96.7/100,000 in 2000 and decreased to 43.60 in 2019 [ 18 ]. Interestingly, these numbers do not correlate with the data provided by Rosstat [ 3 ]. Table ​ Table1 1 provides additional information on this matter.

Adopted from  macrotrends.com  [ 18 ]. 

The research data published in Russia are not always transparent. For example, the “event of undetermined intent” has shown exponential growth since 2014 and has exceeded suicide mortality rates [ 19 ]. The researchers believe that this subcategory includes “latent homicides and suicides,” while actual suicide mortality rates remain unclear. Local coding and data recording standards vary significantly and can negatively affect the transparency of the data. Specifically, many suicides are frequently listed within the “external causes of morbidity and mortality” subcategory [ 19 ]. The ICD-10 classification category includes multiple “environmental events and circumstances as the cause of injury, and other adverse effects,” where potential suicides can be included without any further systematization. “Latent suicides” include falls from heights, poisoning, and hanging with unspecified intent. They account for a significant proportion of suicide mortality. Since they are counted as events of undetermined intent, statistics show a sharp drop in suicide mortality rates, which has a linear trend [ 20 ]. This approach serves as a perfect example of data distortion practices. Moreover, there is no distinct updated information regarding suicides committed in Chechnya and in other North Caucasus republics. Yumaguzin (2019) indicated that suicide rates are significantly underestimated, while ill-defined causes of death are used to misinterpret data related to suicide and self-harming behaviors [ 19 ].

According to Verbitskaya [ 21 ], 80% of publications in Russian have methodological issues or unacceptable research designs. Based on our analysis, many studies conducted or published in Russia have methodological flaws (e.g., incomparable populations, lack of standards, internationally approved scales, and different designs). An analysis of the literature published in Russian showed that many journals have no specific or evidence-based standards for the description and presentation of research results. Although these issues are not directly related to our assessment of men’s suicide rates, it is important to mention these flaws to facilitate positive changes in data reporting. No matter how much the data vary, male suicide mortality rates remain exceptionally high. 

Socioeconomic environment

Many experts agree that male suicide mortality rates are a consequence of social, economic, psychological, and demographic issues. Some of Russia’s cultural norms can be attributed to the nation’s tumultuous history, such as that of the former Soviet Union. With the fall of communism, the nation experienced social and economic hardships that adversely affected many Russians’ mental health. Some theorize that such monumental societal changes during that time have had long-term effects, persisting until the present day. However, there has been a downward trend in suicide rates over the last two decades because the nation has improved on many socioeconomic indicators [ 22 ]. The number of suicides correlates with social changes, such as resettlement, assimilation, and the destruction of the conventional social structure. 

Financial struggles can be attributed to increased suicidality in men. The three main economic indicators, which are GDP, unemployment rate, and consumer price index, are associated with suicidal ideas, suicide attempts, and suicides [ 23 ]. In the economic crises of the 1990s, unemployment and a decrease in personal income were directly correlated with growing suicide rates, especially among men [ 24 ]. Another study evaluated how certain socioeconomic factors influenced suicide patterns within Russia. The findings demonstrated a significant decline in the male suicide rate with the country’s improvement in economic indicators (e.g., income per capita, GRP growth rate, etc.). The study also evaluated the effects of marriage and divorce on suicide rates among men. Marriage has negative effects on suicide rates, while divorce has positive effects on suicide rates [ 25 ]. Russian men are more prone to relocate and tend to move to large cities to obtain employment and work on a shift basis. These difficulties have also led to the insufficient development of institutions expected to address these social issues [ 26 ]. 

Geographical aspects

People living in rural areas of Russia are at a greater risk of suicide than those living in urban areas or big cities. The strength of the connection between intoxication and suicide also depends on the geographical region in Russia. Specifically, the data show that rates increase from the south and west to the north and east of the country [ 24 ]. 

Not only are suicide rates significantly lower in the Northern Caucasus, but other factors also make it important to consider other psychosocial factors. For example, a higher proportion of Muslims in these regions results in a different cultural context in the Northern Caucasus than in the rest of Russia, plus religious differences and Islamic scriptures against suicide. Furthermore, the intersection of these cultural factors with social institutions means that several of the measures included here as controls are confounded with a location in this area.

Average alcohol consumption in central Russia is high with a relatively large proportion of unrecorded consumption ranging from almost zero to 21 liters [ 27 ]. The rates of heavy alcohol consumption (more than 40 g of pure alcohol per day) among men were the lowest in Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia (2.3 L of ethanol per adult/year) and the highest in Magadan region (24.3 L per adult/year) [ 28 ]. Alcohol consumption is lower in these regions, and wine products are more often consumed here than in the rest of the country, meaning that the preference for vodka is not as strong as elsewhere in Russia.

Cultural aspects

The Russian mentality is characterized by a man destined to serve the motherland, the army, and his family. Russian culture is rooted in rigid gender roles, and these norms are present even at the institutional level. In The ABC for Men, the author determined that Russia has over a dozen laws that discriminate against men. For example, Russian law supports the idea of motherhood among women, yet no laws exist that support fatherhood. Although there is no concept of "single father" in Russian law, the number of families consisting of single fathers with children is slowly growing in Russia (1.18% in 2002 vs. 1.27% in 2010. According to Russian law, these men are eligible for the same benefits as single mothers [ 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Russian legislators have attempted to pass several similar bills that, although unsuccessful, highlight the inequities between males and females.

Along these lines, men experience different expectations in terms of occupation. Women are not allowed to work certain jobs that are considered difficult or dangerous. Likewise, these occupations consist solely of male employees, allowing men easier access to suicide modalities at hazardous places of work. Such methods, such as pesticides or firearms, are more lethal. Not only this, but a man’s age of retirement is a full five years later than that of a woman [ 31 ]. These policies indicate Russian cultural pressures, which may adversely affect men’s mental health and suicide rates. Finally, 40-50 percent of all marriages in Russia will end in divorce or separation. High divorce rates may also contribute to the likelihood of higher suicide rates in this country [ 32 ].

Child and adolescent suicidality in Russia

Across all post-Soviet countries, Russia has one of the highest rates of child and adolescent suicide [ 33 ]. Parental neglect, such as physical, sexual, or emotional abuse in childhood (PSEA), is very common in Russian families. The link between PSEA and the risk of suicide throughout life has been confirmed by published research data [ 34 ]. 

According to multiple reports, Russia has often outstripped Europe when it comes to teen suicide rates [ 35 ]. The adolescent suicide rates (specifically between ages 15-34) have steadily increased since 1996, more so than the older age groups. Suicide among young Russian males is four times more common than among young females (32.8 per 100,000 people versus 7.6 in 2004), and it occurs among ever-younger males, some in their early teens [ 36 ]. Although younger groups have had consistently lower suicide rates than middle-aged and older adults, young Russian men have attempted suicide almost twice as often as female youth since 1989. According to reports, almost 4,000 teen suicide attempts were registered in Russia annually, and as many as 1,500 of them resulted in death. In 2016, an ominous report by journalist Galina Mursaliyeva in the Russian newspaper Novaya Gazeta surfaced, which brought to light the presence of online “death groups” on the social media platform  vk.com , which influenced countless teenagers to commit suicide worldwide [ 37 ], the biggest proportion of which were Russian teenagers.

In turn, the administrations’ knee-jerk reactions to increasing internet censorship did little to address the situation. There was a 14% spike in emergency room trips for potential suicides by children and adolescents in 2018 compared to 2017 (692 in 2017 versus 788 in 2018), according to findings reported by state officials [ 38 ]. Local media reports estimated that adolescent suicide rates remained relatively unchanged in 2018-2019. Interestingly, local experts noted that increasingly more Russian teenagers wanted to participate in or “supervise” online suicide games in 2020-2021 [ 39 ].

The underlying conditions that deem these children more susceptible to suicidal ideations are social isolation, a dysfunctional family system (e.g. families with interpersonal conflicts, misbehavior, child abuse or neglect), increased social isolation due to stigma surrounding mental health, an inability to relate to the opposite sex, and intolerance toward LGBTQ+ youth [ 40 , 41 ]. Additionally, decreased attention by caregivers to a child’s emotional needs has been the norm for a long time.

Multiple support groups, such as Your Territory and Deti 404, have since emerged on  Vk.com  to give teenagers a platform to express their frustrations with a skilled support network that provides counseling and mental health support [ 40 ].

Mental health and stigma

Studies of the relationship between psychopathology, substance abuse, and suicide consistently indicate that around 70% of people who die from suicide suffer from an identifiable mental disorder before death. Episodes of major depression associated with a major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder account for at least half of suicide cases [ 42 ]. The prevalence of affective disorders in Russia ranges from 30-40%. The majority of cases remain underdiagnosed and undertreated [ 43 ]. Among suicides, there are usually many factors that can increase underlying risks or interact with depression and increase suicide risk, such as alcohol- and drug-related disorders, which are more common in men [ 44 ].

In almost all regions across the country, men consistently live shorter lives than women. Especially among middle-aged Russian men, high alcohol consumption and ongoing mental health problems contributed to gender differences in all-cause mortality [ 45 ]. 

In Russia, there is a stigma associated with mental health and consequent suicide. Many Russians consider mental health disorders to be self-inflicted and do not believe in treatment. This stigma can extend to a suicidal individual’s friends, family, and mental health professionals. 

Binge drinking is commonplace among Slavic nations, with Russia being one of them. Suicides among men in Russia are specifically associated with high rates of alcoholism. Russia’s cultural pressures also affect the physical health of the country’s men. Men are discouraged from coping with life stressors in healthy ways, and many men turn to drinking or smoking to cope [ 31 ]. Data have shown that many Russian men drink alcohol to cope with stress, unemployment, depression - in situations in which they would otherwise have difficulty coping. High levels of alcoholism in Russia existed before the collapse of the Soviet Union. However, a sharp rise began in the early 1990s and has risen to one of the highest worldwide. Local officials have estimated that alcohol consumption is up to 15 liters per person per year, while consumption in the European Union and the United States is between 7 and 10 liters [ 31 ].

Vodka accounts for roughly 75% of the nation’s alcohol consumption, and approximately one-third of Russian men report binge drinking vodka at least once monthly [ 46 ]. While inebriated, individuals are more susceptible to existing mental health issues and maybe likelier to act on suicidal thoughts. It was shown that life expectancy decreased by 12% between 1990 and 1994, which was directly related to alcohol mortality [ 24 ]. Researchers estimate that 61% of male suicides in Russia involve alcohol, compared to 22% of deaths worldwide that involve alcohol [ 47 ].

Future trends 

Russia is witnessing extremely high male suicide rates. As the high suicide rate among Russian males is multifaceted, it can be difficult to develop effective solutions. Current thinking suggests that access to mental health services can lessen suicide rates. Considering all the difficulties, the transition of primarily descriptive results to specialized suicide prevention programs among men turned out to be a challenging task that requires complex medical and social approaches [ 48 - 50 ].

In the last two decades, the Russian Federation has introduced many measures that have yielded tangible results. In the early 2000s, the state became fully involved in the control of the alcohol market [ 46 ]. In 2006, Russia implemented an alcohol policy to control the alcohol market and contain alcohol-related poisonings. President Putin implemented the law in January 2006, which regulated the volume and quality of alcohol products. The patterns thereafter revealed important learnings as to how alcohol consumption affects suicide rates. One study determined that the 2006 policy yielded a 9% decrease in male suicide mortality. This translates into 40, 000 male lives saved yearly from suicide by restricting alcohol [ 24 ]. 

The WHO published data that, in 2003, both alcohol-related mortality and the amount of alcohol consumed per year decreased significantly [ 51 ]. In this way, the mortality of men has decreased by as much as 40%, while men’s life expectancy has increased from 57 to 68 years over the past 15 years [ 51 ]. In the early stages of the COVID-19 crisis, local experts suggested that the pandemic might lead to an increase in suicide among Russians. Official data released by Rosstat suggested that for the entire year 2020, the standardized mortality ratio due to suicides dropped by 4.1%. However, WHO experts concluded that suicide mortality in Russia is worse than officially reported. According to their report, “Suicide Worldwide in 2019: Global Health Estimates,” the suicide rates (per 100 000) were 25.1 (crude suicide rate) and 21.6 (age-standardized suicide rate), or at least twice as high as the official data [ 52 ]. Given these discrepancies in the data, it is almost impossible to predict future tendencies in men’s suicide mortality. Algorithms used to estimate suicide mortality in men are no longer valid since the data are often inaccurate.

Several effective suicide prevention programs have been implemented in Russia. For example, school- and college-based suicide prevention programs [ 53 - 55 ] have proven effective in reducing the number of suicide attempts among students. Programs aimed at meeting the needs of elderly people from high-risk groups were less effective due to the questionable design of those interventions [ 56 ], none of which have been implemented since 2019. 

Laws that prevent access to a particular method, be they stricter firearm control laws, restriction of access and use of blister packs of pills, lockable pesticide boxes, or bridge barriers (often in combination with a crisis intervention telephone hotline), may affect the suicide rate, even if some adjustments to those methods may occur over time [ 57 ].

While Russia, unlike the United States, does not have anything like the Second Amendment in its Constitution, it does provide its citizens with the constitutional right to self-defense. Additionally, background checks before the ownership of guns are more rigorous and consider an individual’s medical and psychological history [ 58 ]. Despite stricter laws, certain individuals could easily bypass background checks either via corrupt measures or obtain firearms via illegal channels, which is a huge market. This problem was brought to the fore, especially after the mass shooting incident in the Russian city of Kazan in May 2021, when a 19-year-old went on a shooting spree, killing nine people and injuring 23. The authorities quickly passed stricter gun control laws, which included more stringent background checks and control over illegal gun trafficking [ 59 ].

The country also saw a spate of physician deaths during the COVID-19 pandemic, in which two healthcare workers died, and one suffered serious injuries due to falling from a building. While the cause of death is still a matter of speculation, it brought into light a system underequipped to deal with the pandemic due to a short supply of equipment and manpower. Reports also highlight the apathy of the hospital administration in dealing with the sudden spike of COVID-19 cases and caring for healthcare workers, many of whom worked tirelessly even after becoming symptomatic [ 60 ].

Conclusions

Although the suicide statistics in Russia are profound, the suicide rate may be even higher than what has been reported. One of the biggest drivers of male suicidality in Russia is the country’s cultural norms. Russia remains very rooted in tradition, and within this tradition lies unique societal pressures. Cultural and psychosocial aspects of the Russian male experience, such as gender norms, low quality of life, and alcohol consumption, are likely key contributors to the country’s high suicide rates.

Our analysis of official reports and secondary sources in Russia also confirmed that there are too many publications of poor-quality study design and statistical analysis. Finally, continuous improvement of public health policy and fundamental and translational research can contribute to reducing the future suicide rate among the male population in Russia.

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The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Human Ethics

Consent was obtained or waived by all participants in this study

Animal Ethics

Animal subjects: All authors have confirmed that this study did not involve animal subjects or tissue.