first voyage james cook

Cook's First Voyage

First voyage of captain james cook.

(1768 - 1771)

James Cook’s first voyage circumnavigated the globe in the ship Endeavour , giving the botanists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander the opportunity to collect plants from previously unexplored habitats. Although the Endeavour voyage was officially a journey to Tahiti to observe the 1769 transit of Venus across the sun, it also had a more clandestine mission from the Royal Society to explore the South Pacific in the name of England. The two botanists on the expedition returned with a collection of plant specimens including an estimated 100 new families and 1,000 new species of plants, many of which are currently housed in the U. S. National Herbarium.

Joseph Banks, who would later become Sir Joseph Banks and president of the Royal Society, was a wealthy young scientist. He invited his close friend Daniel Solander, a Swedish student of Linnaeus working in the natural history collections of the British Museum, to join him on the Endeavour expedition. Together they acted as the naturalists on the voyage, commanding several servants and artists, including Sydney Parkinson, and outfitted with an excellent array of scientific equipment. After setting out from London, the expedition stopped briefly at Madeira, a small Portuguese island in the Atlantic Ocean, and then continued on to Rio de Janiero, on the eastern coast of Brazil. Here, the expedition encountered one of its first major setbacks when the Portuguese governor Dom Antonio Rolim de Moura Tavare refused to allow anyone from the Endeavour to come on land except to acquire necessities. This restriction, however, didn’t stop the two determined botanists. Banks and Solander risked being arrested as spies or smugglers in order to sneak onshore to collect specimens around the city. Despite this difficulty, the expedition traveled on to Tierra del Fuego at the southern tip of South America, where they collected a large number of specimens despite bitterly cold weather that killed two members of the crew. In April of 1769, the expedition reached Tahiti, where they stayed until July. During this time, Banks and Solander collected over 250 plant species, including the orchids Liparis revoluta and Oberonia equitans (also known as Oberonia disticha ) and the flowering plant Ophiorrhiza solandri , in the first extensive botanical study in Polynesia.

After viewing the transit of Venus on June 3, 1769, the expedition began mapping, exploring, and collecting specimens in the relatively unknown regions of New Zealand and the eastern coast of Australia (then called New Holland). Plants collected included the large orchid Dendrobium cunninghamii , also known as Winika cunninghamii , native to the western shore of New Zealand, as well as white-honeysuckle ( Banksia integrifolia ), native to the east coast of Australia. The Endeavour stopped for nine days at a bay on the coast of Australia, where, according to Banks, the expedition’s plant collection became “so immensely large that it was necessary that some extraordinary care should be taken of them least they should spoil.” The botanists were so successful that Cook decided to name the place Botany Bay in honor of their extensive discoveries.

The Endeavour continued its voyage mapping the eastern coast of Australia, narrowly avoiding shipwreck on the Great Barrier Reef, until it re-entered known waters near New Guinea in late August, 1770. During the last part of the voyage, the Endeavour stopped at the disease-ridden city of Batavia in Java and at the Cape of Good Hope in Africa, returning to England in July, 1771. Overall, the expedition was very successful, with little strife among the crew and no deaths from scurvy. Although neither Banks nor Solander published their botanical findings, the two naturalists returned to England with a vast wealth of new discoveries.

References:

Adams, Brian. The Flowering of the Pacific . Sydney: William Collins Pty, 1986. Allen, Oliver E. The Pacific Navigators . Canada: Time-Life Books, 1980. Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) database, http://gbif.org/ (for information on plant species Dendrobium cunninghamii ; accessed June 15, 2010). Ebes, Hank. The Florilegium of Captain Cook’s First Voyage to Australia: 1768-1771 . Melbourne: Ebes Douwma Antique Prints and Maps, 1988. Encyclopedia of Life (EOL) database, http://www.eol.org/ (for information on plant species Oberonia disticha and Dendrobium cunninghamii ; accessed June 15, 2010). Merrill, Elmer Drew. The Botany of Cook’s Voyages and its Unexpected Significance in Relation to Anthropology, Biogeography and History . Waltham, Massachusetts: Chronica Botanica Co., 1954. O’Brian, Patrick. Joseph Banks: A Life . Boston: David R. Gardine, Publisher, 1993. Rauchenberg, Roy A. “Daniel Carl Solander: Naturalist on the ‘Endeavour’,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society , New Series, 58, no. 8 (1968): 1-66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1006027 (May 26, 2010). National Library of Australia. “South Seas: Voyaging and Cross-Cultural Encounters in the Pacific.” South Seas , n.d. http://southseas.nla.gov.au/ . Contains maps and text of expedition journals by James Cook and Joseph Banks. USDA PLANTS database. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/ (for information on plant species Banksia integrifolia ; accessed June 15, 2010).

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June 3 dawned crystal clear, and for six hours, in temperatures rising to 119°F, the men did the best they could, but their astronomical observations of Venus were hindered by a dusky cloud surrounding the planet. For a week at the end of the month, Cook, with a small party, took the ship’s pinnace and circled the island so that he could chart it, a rather daring feat considering his vulnerability. Before leaving Tahiti on July 13, he had to deal with an attempted desertion by two crewmen and the kidnap and counterkidnap of Tahitian chiefs and British crew members to resolve this escalating problem. At the last moment, he reluctantly agreed to the addition of Tupaia, a young Tahitian priest and interpreter who wanted to join Banks’s party.

Bénard, Robert, fl. 1750–1785 . “Baye de Matavai à Otahiti ; Havre d’Ohamaneno à Ulietea ; Havre d’Owharre dans l’isle d’Huaheine : Havre d’Oopoa à Ulietea.” Four copperplate maps on 1 sheet, with added color, 12 × 15 cm. or smaller, on sheet 27 × 40 cm. From Hawkesworth’s Relation des voyages entrepris par ordre de Sa Majesté Britannique . . . (Paris, 1774) [Historic Maps Collection]. Point Venus in Matavai Bay was the site of Cook’s observation of the transit of Venus in June 1769.

Breadfruit. [Hawkesworth, vol. 2, plate 3]

The bread-fruit grows on a tree that is about the size of a middling oak: its leaves are frequently a foot and a half long, of an oblong shape, deeply sinuated like those of a fig-tree, which they resemble in consistence and colour, and in the exuding of a white milkey juice upon being broken. The fruit is about the size and shape of a child’s head, and the surface is reticulated not much unlike a truffle: it is covered with a thin skin, and has a core about as big as the handle of a thin knife: the eatable part lies between the skin and the core; it is as white as snow, and somewhat of the consistence of new bread: it must be roasted before it is eaten. . . . [vol. 2, p. 80]

Hogg, Alexander, fl. 1778–1819. “Chart of the Society Isles Discovered by Captn. Cook, 1769.” Copperplate map, with added color, 22 × 34 cm. From G. W. Anderson’s A New, Authentic and Complete Collection of Voyages Around the World, Undertaken and Performed by Royal Authority . . . (London, 1784). [Historic Maps Collection]

New Zealander Tattoos. [Hawkesworth, vol. 3, plate 13]

The bodies of both sexes are marked with black stains called Amoco, by the same method that is used at Otaheite, and called Tattowing; but the men are more marked, and the women less. . . . [T]he men, on the contrary, seem to add something every year to the ornaments of the last, so that some of them, who appeared to be of an advanced age, were almost covered from head to foot. Besides the Amoco, the have marks impressed by a method unknown to us, of a very extraordinary kind: they are furrows of about a line deep, and a line broad, such as appear on the bark of a tree which has been cut through . . . and being perfectly black, they make a most frightful appearance. . . . [W]e could not but admire the dexterity and art with which they were impressed. The marks upon the face in general are spirals, which are drawn with great nicety, and even elegance, those on one side exactly corresponding with those on the other. . . . [N]o two were, upon a close examination, found to be alike. [vol. 3, pp. 452–53]

“Carte de la Nle. Zelande visitée en 1769 et 1770 par le Lieutenant J. Cook Commandant de l’Endeavour, vaisseau de sa Majesté.” Copperplate map, with added color, 46 × 36 cm. From John Hawkesworth’s Relation des voyages entrepris par ordre de Sa Majesté Britannique . . . (Paris, 1774). French copy of Cook’s foundation map of New Zealand, showing the track of the Endeavour around both islands, from October 6, 1769, to April 1, 1770. [Historic Maps Collection]

Endeavour came within sight of land on April 19, well north of the area charted by Tasman 125 years earlier. The New Holland (Australia) coast was exasperating, however, and Cook could not find a safe place to land until the afternoon of Saturday, April 28, when they entered Botany Bay (part of today’s Sydney Harbor), which Cook later named for the wide variety of plant life found there. The Aborigines that they saw there were unintelligible to Tupaia and kept away, avoiding contact. Through May and into June, Endeavour sailed north, arcing northwest, following the Great Barrier Reef coastline. On the evening of June 10, when most of the men were sleeping, the ship struck coral, stuck fast, and began leaking. Quick thinking and decisive action by Cook and his men—pumping furiously and jettisoning fifty tons of decayed stores, stone ballast, and cannons—kept the ship afloat and allowed a temporary underwater repair. A few days later, the damaged ship was safely beached on a barren shore (near today’s Cooktown, by the EndeavourRiver), and a fury of activity began more permanent work: the expedition had avoided a real disaster. (Henceforth, the British Admiralty would send Cook out with two ships for safety.) During this time, the men enjoyed more favorable interactions with the natives, but not without miscommunications and incidents of distrust. (See the box on Cook’s ultimately positive views on the New Hollanders.) By August 13, the ship was ready to resume its journey.             The labyrinth of treacherous islands and reefs was threaded slowly and carefully, with vigilance and some luck, as the expedition sailed northward through the Great Barrier Reef, westward around the northernmost point of New Holland, and into what Cook called Endeavour Strait. He stopped briefly at Possession Island (his name) where, now knowing he was in territory explored by the Dutch, he claimed the whole coastline he had just charted for King George III. It was a proud moment, essentially marking the end of Cook’s first Pacific voyage’s geographical discoveries.

Bonne, Rigobert, 1727–1794. “Nlle. Galles Mérid.le [i.e. Nouvelle Galles Méridionale], ou, Côte orientale de la Nouvelle Hollande.” Copperplate map, with added color, 34 × 17 cm. Plate 137 from vol. 2 of R. Bonne and N. Desmarest’s Atlas Encyclopédique . . . (Paris, 1788). [Historic Maps Collection]

Places to note include Botany Bay (B. de Bontanique) around 34°, part of today’s Sydney, highlighted in an inset, and Endeavour River (Riv. Endeavour) at the top, between 15° and 16°, where the ship was repaired. The large inset at the bottom left shows the part of Tasmania explored by Captain Tobias Furneaux of the Adventure during Cook’s second voyage.

Beached Endeavour and Examination of Its Damage. [Hawkesworth, vol. 3, plate 19]

In the morning of Monday the 18th [June 1770], a stage was made from the ship to the shore, which was so bold that she floated at twenty feet distance: two tents were also set up, one for the sick, and the other for stores and provisions, which were landed in the course of the day. We also landed all the empty water casks, and part of the stores. . . . At two o’clock in the morning of the 22d, the tide left her, and gave us an opportunity to examine the leak, which we found to be at her floor heads, a little before the starboard fore-chains. In this place the rocks had made their way through four planks, and even into the timbers; three more planks were much damaged, and the appearances of these breaches was very extraordinary: there was not a splinter to be seen, but all was as smooth, as if the whole had been cut away by an instrument: the timbers in this place were happily very close, and if they had not, it would have been absolutely impossible to have saved the ship. But after all, her preservation depended upon a circumstance still more remarkable: in one of the holes, which was big enough to have sunk us, if we had eight pumps instead of four, and been able to keep them incessantly going, was in great measure plugged up by a fragment of the rock, which, after having made the wound, was left sticking in it. . . . By nine o’clock in the morning the carpenters got to work upon her, while the smiths were busy in making bolts and nails. [vol. 3, pp. 557, 559–60]

Kangaroo. [Hawkesworth, vol. 3, plate 20]

As I was walking this morning at a little distance from the one ship, I saw myself one of the animals which had been so often described: it was of a light mouse colour, and in size and shape very much resembling a greyhound; it had a long tail also, which it carried like a greyhound; and I should have taken it for a wild dog, if instead of running, it had not leapt like a hare or deer: its legs were said to be very slender, and the print of its foot to be like that of a goat. . . . [vol. 3, p. 561]

Natives of New Holland

From what I have said of the Natives of New-Holland they may appear to some to be the most wretched people upon Earth, but in reality they are far more happier than we Europeans; being wholly unacquainted not only with the superfluous but the necessary Conveniences so much sought after in Europe, they are happy in not knowing the use of them. They live in a Tranquillity which is not disturb’d by the Inequality of Condition: The Earth and sea of their own accord furnishes them with all things necessary for life, they covet not Magnificent Houses, Household-stuff &c., they live in a warm and fine Climate and enjoy a very wholesome Air. . . . In short they seem’d to set no Value upon any thing we gave them, nor would they ever part with any thing of their own for any one article we could offer them; this in my opinion argues that they think themselves provided with all the necessarys of Life and that they have no superfluities. [ Journals , p. 174]

In Batavia (today’s Jakarta, Indonesia), where Endeavour anchored on October 7, 1770, there was English news! American colonists had refused to pay taxes, and the king had dispatched troops to put down the first signs of a rebellion. Because of Cook’s strict insistence on a clean ship, exercise, and a healthy diet (including scurvy-preventing sauerkraut) for his crew, he had, until then, lost no man to sickness. Now, in one of the most diseased foreign cities, malaria, dysentery, and other ills began their work: almost everyone got sick during the months they remained on the island for refit and repair, and many died, including the Tahitian, Tupaia. Even after Cook left for home (December 26), the unfortunate deaths continued—thirty-four in all by the time they reached Cape Town in March—and five more would die there or on the last leg back to England. (Never failing to provide milk for the officers, Wallis’s goat was among the elite, having survived its second circumnavigation.) Endeavour docked in the Downs on July 12, 1771.             The three men—Cook, Banks, and Solander—companions during more than a thousand days at sea, now shared a seven-hour post-chaise trip through Kent to London—riding into history. The botanists had brought back a wealth of scientific data about plant and animal species, including thousands of plants never seen in England as well as the amazing drawings of Sydney Parkinson and Alexander Buchan, the expedition’s artists, who had both died on the voyage. Cook had recorded his observations of the life and customs of the Polynesians of Tahiti, the Maori of New Zealand, and the Aborigines of Australia. And he had his accurate charts, which would immediately improve the mapping of the Pacific Ocean.

Zatta, Antonio, fl. 1757–1797. “Nuove scoperte fatte nel 1765, 67, e 69 nel Mare del Sud” (1776). Copperplate map, with added color, 29 × 39 cm. From Zatta’s Atlante novissimo (Venice, 1775–1785). Reference: Perry and Prescott, Guide to Maps of Australia , 1776.01. [Historic Maps Collection]

First decorative map to show Cook’s tracks in the Pacific, recording the discoveries he made in Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and the South Pacific during the Endeavour voyage. Also noted are the tracks of Philip Carteret, John Byron, and Samuel Wallis. The chartings of the east coast of Australia and New Zealand’s two islands are shown in detail, drawn from Cook’s own map of the region, “Chart of Part of the South Seas” (1773). The ship depicted is most probably the Endeavour .

James Cook and his voyages

The son of a farm labourer, James Cook (1728–1779) was born at Marton in Yorkshire. In 1747 he was apprenticed to James Walker, a shipowner and master mariner of Whitby, and for several years sailed in colliers in the North Sea, English Channel, Irish Sea and Baltic Sea. In 1755 he volunteered for service in the Royal Navy and was appointed an able seaman on HMS Eagle . Within two years he was promoted to the rank of master and in 1758 he sailed to North America on HMS Pembroke . His surveys of the St Lawrence River, in the weeks before the capture of Quebec, established his reputation as an outstanding surveyor. In 1763 the Admiralty gave him the task of surveying the coast of Newfoundland and southern Labrador. He spent four years on HMS Grenville , recording harbours and headlands, shoals and rocks, and also observed an eclipse of the sun in 1766.

First voyage

In May 1768 Cook was promoted to the rank of lieutenant and given command of the bark Endeavour . He was instructed to sail to Tahiti to observe the transit of Venus in 1769 and also to ascertain whether a continent existed in the southern latitudes of the Pacific Ocean. The expedition, which included a party of scientists and artists led by Joseph Banks, left Plymouth in August 1768 and sailed to Brazil and around Cape Horn, reaching Tahiti in April 1769. After the astronomical observations were completed, Cook sailed south to 40°S, but failed to find any land. He then headed for New Zealand, which he circumnavigated, establishing that there were two principal islands. From New Zealand he sailed to New Holland, which he first sighted in April 1770. He charted the eastern coast, naming prominent landmarks and collecting many botanical specimens at Botany Bay. The expedition nearly ended in disaster when the Endeavour struck the Great Barrier Reef, but it was eventually dislodged and was careened and repaired at Endeavour River. From there it sailed around Cape York through Torres Strait to Batavia, in the Dutch East Indies. In Batavia and on the last leg of the voyage one-third of the crew died of malaria and dysentery. Cook and the other survivors finally reached England in July 1771.

Second voyage

In 1772 Cook, who had been promoted to the rank of captain, led a new expedition to settle once and for all the speculative existence of the Great Southern Continent by ‘prosecuting your discoveries as near to the South Pole as possible’. The sloops Resolution and Adventure , the latter commanded by Tobias Furneaux, left Sheerness in June 1772 and sailed to Cape Town. The ships became separated in the southern Indian Ocean and the Adventure sailed along the southern and eastern coasts of Van Diemen’s Land before reuniting with the Resolution at Queen Charlotte Sound in New Zealand. The ships explored the Society and Friendly Islands before they again became separated in October 1773. The Adventure sailed to New Zealand, where 10 of the crew were killed by Maori, and returned to England in June 1774. The Resolution sailed south from New Zealand, crossing the Antarctic Circle and reaching 71°10’S, further south than any ship had been before. It then traversed the southern Pacific Ocean, visiting Easter Island, Tahiti, the Friendly Islands, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island and New Zealand. In November 1774 Cook began the homeward voyage, sailing to Chile, Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, South Georgia and Cape Town. The expedition reached England in July 1775.

Third voyage

A year later Cook left Plymouth on an expedition to search for the North West Passage. His two ships were HMS Resolution and Discovery , the latter commanded by Charles Clerke. They sailed to Cape Town, Kerguelen Island in the southern Indian Ocean, Adventure Bay in Van Diemen’s Land, and Queen Charlotte Sound in New Zealand. They then revisited the Friendly and Society Islands. Sailing northwards, Cook became the first European to travel to the Hawaiian Islands (which he named the Sandwich Islands), and reached the North American coast in March 1778. The ships followed the coast northwards to Alaska and the Bering Strait and reached 70°44’N, before being driven back by ice. They returned to the Sandwich Islands and on 14 February 1779 Cook was killed by Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay. Clerke took over the command and in the summer of 1779 the expedition again tried unsuccessfully to penetrate the pack ice beyond Bering Strait. Clerke died in August 1779 and John Gore and James King commanded the ships on the voyage home via Macao and Cape Town. They reached London in October 1780.

Acquisition

The earliest acquisitions by the Library of original works concerning Cook’s voyages were the papers of Sir Joseph Banks and a painting of John Webber, which were acquired from E.A. Petherick in 1909. In 1923 the Australian Government purchased at a Sotheby’s sale in London the Endeavour journal of James Cook, together with four other Cook documents that had been in the possession of the Bolckow family in Yorkshire. The manuscripts of Alexander Home were purchased from the Museum Bookstore in London in 1925, while the journal of James Burney was received with the Ferguson Collection in 1970. A facsimile copy of the journal of the Resolution in 1772–75 was presented by Queen Elizabeth II in 1954.

The 18 crayon drawings of South Sea Islanders by William Hodges were presented to the Library by the British Admiralty in 1939. They had previously been in the possession of Greenwich Hospital. The view from Point Venus by Hodges was bought at a Christie’s sale in 1979. The paintings of William Ellis were part of the Nan Kivell Collection, with the exception of the view of Adventure Bay, which was bought from Hordern House in Sydney in 1993. The painting of the death of Cook by George Carter and most of the paintings of John Webber were also acquired from Rex Nan Kivell. The painting by John Mortimer was bequeathed to the Library by Dame Merlyn Myer and was received in 1987.

Description

Manuscripts.

The Endeavour journal of James Cook (MS 1) is the most famous item in the Library’s collections. It has been the centrepiece of many exhibitions ever since its acquisition in 1923, and in 2001 it became the first Australian item to be included on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO’s) Memory of the World Register. While there are other journals of the first voyage that are partly in Cook’s hand, MS 1 is the only journal that is entirely written by Cook and covers the whole voyage of the Endeavour . The early entries in 1768, as the ship crossed the Atlantic Ocean, are brief but the passages describing Cook’s experiences and impressions in Tahiti, New Zealand and New South Wales in 1769–70 are very detailed. The journal, which is 753 pages in length, was originally a series of paper volumes and loose sheets, but they were bound into a single volume in the late nineteenth century. The current binding of oak and pigskin dates from 1976.

Two other manuscripts, also acquired in 1923, relate to the first voyage. The Endeavour letterbook (MS 2), in the hand of Cook’s clerk, Richard Orton, contains copies of Cook’s correspondence with the Admiralty and the various branches of the Navy Board. Of particular importance are the original and additional secret instructions that he received from the Lords of the Admiralty in July 1768. The other item (MS 3) is a log of the voyage, ending with the arrival in Batavia. The writer is not known, although it may have been Charles Green, the astronomer. Other documents concerning the voyage are among the papers of Joseph Banks (MS 9), including his letters to the Viceroy of Brazil in 1768 and the ‘Hints’ of the Earl of Morton, the president of the Royal Society.

The Library holds a facsimile copy (MS 1153) of the journal of HMS Resolution on the second voyage, the original of which is in the National Maritime Museum in London. It is in the hand of Cook’s clerk, William Dawson. It also holds the journal (MS 3244) of James Burney, a midshipman on HMS Adventure , covering the first part of the voyage in 1772–73. It includes a map of eastern Van Diemen’s Land and Burney’s transcription of Tongan music. In addition, there is a letterbook (MS 6) of the Resolution for both the second and third voyages. Documents of the third voyage include an account of the death of Cook (MS 8), probably dictated by Burney, and two manuscripts of Alexander Home (MS 690). They contain descriptions of Tahiti and Kamtschatka and another account of Cook’s death.

The earliest manuscript of Cook in the collection is his description of the coast of Nova Scotia, with two maps of Harbour Grace and Carbonere, dating from 1762 (MS 5). The Library holds original letters of Cook written to John Harrison, George Perry, Sir Philip Stephens and the Commissioners of Victualling. There is also in the Nan Kivell Collection a group of papers and letters of the Cook family, 1776–1926 (MS 4263).

MS 1 Journal of the H.M.S. Endeavour, 1768-1771

MS 2 Cook's voyage 1768-71 : copies of correspondence, etc. 1768-1771

MS 3 Log of H.M.S. Endeavour, 1768-1770

MS 5 Description of the sea coast of Nova Scotia, 1762

MS 6 Letterbook, 1771-1778

MS 8 Account of the death of James Cook, 1779

MS 9 Papers of Sir Joseph Banks, 1745-1923

MS 690 Home, Alexander, Journals, 1777-1779

MS 1153 Journal of H.M.S. Resolution, 1772-1775

MS 3244 Burney, James, Journal, 1772-1773

MS 4263 Family papers 1776-1926

Many records relating to the voyages of Cook have been microfilmed at the National Archives (formerly the Public Record Office) in London and other archives and libraries in Britain. They include the official log of HMS Endeavour and the private journals kept by Cook on his second and third voyages. The reels with the prefixes PRO or M were filmed by the Australian Joint Copying Project.

mfm PRO 3268 Letters of Capt. James Cook to the Admiralty, 1768–79 (Adm. 1/1609-12)

mfm PRO 1550–51 Captain’s log books, HMS Adventure , 1772–74 (Adm. 51/4521-24)

mfm PRO 1554 Captain’s log books, HMS Discovery , 1776–79 (Adm. 51/ 4528-9)

mfm PRO 1554 Captain’s log books, HMS Resolution , 1779 (Adm. 51/4529)

mfm PRO 1555–6 Captain’s log books, HMS Discovery , 1776–79 (Adm. 51/4530-1)

mfm PRO 1561–3 Captain’s log books, HMS Endeavour , 1768–71 (Adm. 51/4545-8)

mfm PRO 1565–70 Captain’s log books, HMS Resolution , 1771–79 (Adm. 51/4553-61)

mfm PRO 1572 Logbooks, HMS Adventure , 1772–74 (Adm. 53/1)

mfm PRO 1575–6 Logbooks, HMS Discovery , 1776–79 (Adm. 53/20-24)

mfm PRO 1580 Logbooks, HMS Endeavour , 1768–71 (Adm. 53/39-41)

mfm PRO 1590–4 Logbooks, HMS Resolution , 1771–80 (Adm. 53/103-24)

mfm PRO 1756 Logbook, HMS Adventure , 1772–74 (BL 44)

mfm PRO 1756 Observations made on board HMS Adventure , 1772–74 (BL 45)

mfm PRO 1756A Logbook, HMS Resolution , 1772–75 (BL 46)

mfm PRO 1756 Observations made on board HMS Resolution , 1772–75 (BL 47)

mfm PRO 1756 Journal of Capt. J. Cook: observations on variations in compass and chronometer rates, 1776 (BL 48)

mfm PRO 1756 Astronomical observations, HMS Resolution , 1778–80 (BL 49)

mfm PRO 4461–2 Ship’s musters, HMS Endeavour , 1768–71 (Adm. 12/8569)

mfm PRO 4462–3 Ship’s musters, HMS Adventure , 1769–74 (Adm. 12/7550)

mfm PRO 4463–4 Ship’s musters, HMS Resolution , 1771–75 (Adm. 12/7672)

mfm PRO 4464 Ship’s musters, HMS Discovery , 1776–80 (Adm. 12/8013)

mfm PRO 4464–5 Ship’s musters, HMS Resolution , 1776–80 (Adm. 12/9048-9)

mfm PRO 6119 Deptford Yard letterbooks, 1765-78 (Adm. 106/3315-8)

MAP mfm M 406 Charts and tracings of Australian and New Zealand coastlines by R. Pickersgill and Capt. James Cook, 1769–70 (Hydrographic Department)

mfm M 869 Letters of David Samwell, 1773–82 (Liverpool City Libraries)

mfm M 1561 Log of HMS Endeavour , 1768–71 (British Library)

mfm M 1562 Journal of Capt. Tobias Furneaux on HMS Adventure , 1772–74 (British Library)

mfm M1563 Drawings of William Hodges on voyage of HMS Resolution , 1772–74 (British Library)

mfm M 1564 Log of Lieut. Charles Clerke on HMS Resolution , 1772–75 (British Library)

mfm M 1565 Journal of Lieut. James Burney on HMS Discovery , 1776–79 (British Library)

mfm M 1566 Journal of Thomas Edgar on HMS Discovery , 1776–79

mfm M 1580 Journal of Capt. James Cook on HMS Resolution , 1771–74 (British Library)

mfm M 1580–1 Journal of Capt. James Cook on HMS Resolution , 1776–79 (British Library)

mfm M 1583 Journal of David Samwell on HMS Resolution and Discovery , 1776–79 (British Library)

mfm M 2662 Correspondence of Sir Joseph Banks, 1768–1819 (Natural History Museum)

mfm M 3038 Letters of Capt. James Cook, 1775–77 (National Maritime Museum)

mfm M 3074 Drafts of Capt. James Cook’s account of his second voyage (National Maritime Museum)

mfm G 9 Journal of voyage of HMS Endeavour , 1768–71 (National Maritime Museum)

mfm G 13 Journal of voyage of HMS Resolution , 1772–75 (National Maritime Museum)

mfm G 27412 Journal of Capt. James Cook on HMS Endeavour , 1768–70 (Mitchell Library)

The only manuscript maps drawn by Cook held in the Library are the two maps of Halifax Harbour, Nova Scotia, contained in MS 5. The map by James Burney of Van Diemen’s Land, contained in his 1773–74 journal, is the only manuscript map in the Library emanating from Cook’s three Pacific voyages.

On the first voyage most of the surveys were carried out by Cook himself, assisted by Robert Molyneux, the master, and Richard Pickersgill, the master’s mate. Cook produced some of the fair charts, but it seems that most were drawn by Isaac Smith, one of the midshipmen. After the voyage the larger charts were engraved by William Whitchurch and a number of engravers worked on the smaller maps. The Library holds nine maps (six sheets) and five coastal views (one sheet) published in 1773, as well as two French maps of New Zealand and New South Wales based on Cook’s discoveries (1774).

Cook and Pickersgill, who had been promoted to lieutenant, carried out most of the surveys on the second voyage. Others were performed by Joseph Gilbert, master of the Resolution , Peter Fannin, master of the Adventure , the astronomer William Wales and James Burney. Isaac Smith, the master’s mate, again drew most of the fair charts of the voyage and William Whitchurch again did most of the engravings. The Library holds 15 maps (10 sheets) published in 1777.

On the third voyage, Cook seems to have produced very few charts. Most of the surveys were carried out by William Bligh, master of the Resolution , and Thomas Edgar, master of the Discovery . Henry Roberts, the master’s mate and a competent artist, made the fair charts and after the voyage he drew the compilation charts from which the engraved plates were produced. Alexander Dalrymple supervised the engravings. The Library holds five maps and five coastal views published in 1784–86.

The Library holds a number of objects that allegedly belonged to Cook, such as a walking stick, a clothes brush and a fork. A more substantial artefact is a mahogany and rosewood fall-front desk that was believed to have been used by Cook on one of his voyages. Other association items are a compass, protractor, ruler and spirit level owned by Alexander Hood, the master’s mate on HMS Resolution in 1772–75.

Three of the medals issued by the Royal Society in 1784 to commemorate the achievements of Cook are held in the Library. Another medal issued in 1823 to commemorate his voyages is also held.

The Library has several collections of tapa cloth, including a piece of cloth and two reed maps brought back by Alexander Hood in 1774 and a catalogue of 56 specimens of cloth collected on Cook’s three voyages (1787).

Captain James Cook's walking stick

Clothes brush said to have been the property of Captain Cook

Captain James Cook's fork

Mahogany fall-front bureau believed to have been used by Captain Cook

Compass, protractor, ruler and spirit level owned by Alexander Hood

Commemorative medal to celebrate the voyages of Captain James Cook (1784)

Medal to commemorate the voyages of Captain Cook (1823)

Sample of tapa cloth and two reed mats brought back by Alex Hood

A catalogue of the different specimens of cloth collected in the three voyages of Captain Cook

The Library holds a very large number of engraved portraits of James Cook, many of them based on the paintings by Nathaniel Dance, William Hodges and John Webber. It also holds two oil portraits by unknown artists, one being a copy of the portrait by Dance held in the National Maritime Museum in London. Of special interest is a large oil painting by John Mortimer, possibly painted in 1771, depicting Daniel Solander, Joseph Banks, James Cook, John Hawkesworth and Lord Sandwich.

There were two artists on the Endeavour : Alexander Buchan, who died in Tahiti in 1769, and Sydney Parkinson, who died in Batavia in 1771. The Library has a few original works that have been attributed to Parkinson, in particular a watercolour of breadfruit, which is in the Nan Kivell Collection. In addition, there are a number of prints that were reproduced in the publications of Hawkesworth and Parkinson in 1773, including the interior of a Tahitian house, the fort at Point Venus, a view of Matavai Bay, Maori warriors and war canoes, mountainous country on the west coast of New Zealand, and a view of Endeavour River.

William Hodges was the artist on the Resolution in 1772–75. The Library holds an outstanding collection of 18 chalk drawings by Hodges of the heads of Pacific Islanders. They depict men and women of New Zealand, Tahiti, Tonga, New Caledonia, New Hebrides and Easter Island. Other works by Hodges include an oil painting of a dodo and a red parakeet, watercolours of Tahiti, Tonga and the New Hebrides, and an oil painting of Point Venus. There are also two pen and wash drawings of the Resolution by John Elliott, who was a midshipman on the ship. Among the prints of Hodges are other heads of Pacific Islanders, a portrait of Omai, the Tahitian who visited England in 1775–76, and views of Tahiti, New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Norfolk Island, Easter Island and Tierra del Fuego.

John Webber, who was on the Resolution in 1776–80, had been trained as a landscape artist in Berne and Paris. Another artist on the expedition was William Ellis, the surgeon’s mate on the Discovery , who was a fine draughtsman. The Library holds 19 of Webber’s watercolours, ink and wash drawings, crayon drawings and pencil drawings of views in Tahiti, the Friendly Islands, the Sandwich Islands, Alaska and Kamchatka. There are also oil portraits by Webber of John Gore and James King. Ellis is equally well represented, with 23 watercolours, ink drawings and pencil drawings of scenes in Kerguelen Island, New Zealand, Tahiti, Nootka Sound, Alaska and Kamchatka. Of particular interest is a watercolour and ink drawing by Ellis of the Resolution and Discovery moored in Adventure Bay in 1777, the earliest original Australian work in the Pictures Collection. The death of Cook is the subject of the largest oil painting in the Library’s collection, painted by George Carter in 1781.

Omai, the first Polynesian to be seen in London, was the subject of a number of portraits, included a celebrated painting by Sir Joshua Reynolds. The Library has a pencil drawing of Omai by Reynolds. A pantomime by John O’Keefe entitled Omai, or a Trip Round the World , enjoyed great success in London in 1785–86, being played more than 50 times. The Library holds a collection of 17 watercolour costume designs for the pantomime, drawn by Philippe de Loutherbourg and based mainly on drawings by Webber. The subjects include ‘Obereyaee enchatress’, ‘Otoo King of Otaheite’, ‘a chief of Tchutzki’ and ‘a Kamtchadale’.

Publications

Bibliography.

Beddie,M.K. (ed.), Bibliography of Captain James Cook, R,N., F.R.S., circumnavigator , Library of New South Wales, Sydney, 1970.

Original Accounts of the Voyages

Hawkesworth, John, An account of the voyages undertaken by the order of His Present Majesty, for making discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere, and successively performed by Commodore Byron, Captain Wallis, Captain Carteret, and Captain Cook, in the Dolphin, the Swallow, and the Endeavour (3 vols, 1773)

Parkinson, Sydney, A journal of the voyage to the South Seas, in His Majesty’s Ship, the Endeavour (1773)

Marra, John, Journal of the Resolution’s Voyage, in 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775, on Discovery to the Southern Hemisphere (1775)

Cook, James, A voyage towards the South Pole, and round the world: performed in His Majesty’s Ships the Resolution and the Adventure in the years 1772,1773, 1774, and 1775 (2 vols, 1777)

Forster, Georg, A voyage round the world in His Britannic Majesty’s Sloop, Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the years 1772, 3, 4 and 5 (2 vols, 1777)

Wales, William, The original astronomical observations, made in the course of a voyage towards the South Pole, and round the world (1777)

Rickman, John, Journal of Captain Cook’s last voyage to the Pacific Ocean, on discovery: performed in the years 1776, 1777, 1778, and 1779 (1781)

Zimmermann, Heinrich, Heinrich Zimmermanns von Wissloch in der Pfalz, Reise um die Welt, mit Capitain Cook (1781)

Ellis, William, An authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Captain Cook and Captain Clerke, in His Majesty’s ships Resolution and Discovery during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, and 1780 (2 vols, 1782)

Ledyard, John, Journal of Captain Cook’s last voyage to the Pacific Ocean, and in quest of a North-West Passage Between Asia & America, performed in the years 1776, 1777, 1778 and 1779 (1783)

Cook, James and King, James, A voyage to the Pacific Ocean: undertaken by Command of His Majesty, for making discoveries in the Northern Hemisphere, performed under the direction of Captains Cook, Clerke, and Gore, in the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, and 1780 (4 vols, 1784)

Sparrman, Anders, Reise nach dem Vorgebirge der guten Hoffnung, den sudlischen Polarlandern und um die Welt (1784)

Modern Texts

Beaglehole, J.C. (ed.), The Endeavour journal of Joseph Banks, 1768–1771 (2 vols, 1962)

Beaglehole, J.C. (ed.), The journals of Captain James Cook on his voyages of discovery (4 vols, 1955–74)

David, Andrew (ed.), The charts & coastal Views of Captain Cook’s voyages (3 vols, 1988–97)

Hooper, Beverley (ed.), With Captain James Cook in the Antarctic and Pacific: the private journal of James Burney, Second Lieutenant on the Adventure on Cook’s second voyage, 1772–1773 (1975)

Joppien, Rudiger and Smith, Bernard, The art of Captain Cook’s voyages (3 vols in 4, 1985–87)

Parkin, Ray, H.M. Bark Endeavour: her place in Australian history: with an account of her construction, crew and equipment and a narrative of her voyage on the East Coast of New Holland in 1770 (1997)

Biographical Works and Related Studies

There are a huge number of books and pamphlets on the lives of Cook, Banks and their associates. The following are some of the more substantial works:

Alexander, Michael, Omai, noble savage (1977)

Beaglehole, J.C., The life of Captain James Cook (1974)

Besant, Walter, Captain Cook (1890)

Blainey, Geoffrey,  Sea of dangers: Captain Cook and his rivals  (2008)

Cameron, Hector, Sir Joseph Banks, K.B., P.R.S.: the autocrat of the philosophers (1952)

Carr, D.J., Sydney Parkinson, artist of Cook’s Endeavour voyage (1983)

Carter, Harold B., Sir Joseph Banks, 1743–1820 (1988)

Collingridge, Vanessa, Captain Cook: obsession and betrayal in the New World (2002)

Connaughton, Richard, Omai, the Prince who never was (2005)

Dugard, Martin, Farther than any man: the rise and fall of Captain James Cook (2001)

Duyker, Edward, Nature’s argonaut: Daniel Solander 1733–1782: naturalist and voyager with Cook and Banks (1998)

Furneaux, Rupert, Tobias Furneaux, circumnavigator (1960)

Gascoigne, John, Captain Cook: voyager between worlds (2007)

Hoare, Michael E., The tactless philosopher: Johann Reinhold Forster (1729–98) (1976)

Hough, Richard, Captain James Cook: a biography (1994)

Kippis, Andrew, The life of Captain James Cook (1788)

Kitson, Arthur, Captain James Cook, RN, FRS, the circumnavigator (1907)

Lyte, Charles, Sir Joseph Banks: 18th Century explorer, botanist and entrepreneur (1980)

McAleer, John and Rigby, Nigel, Captain Cook and the Pacific: art, exploration & empire (2017)

McCormick, E.H., Omai: Pacific envoy (1977)

McLynn, Frank, Captain Cook: master of the seas (2011)

Molony, John N., Captain James Cook: claiming the Great South Land (2016)

Moore, Peter, Endeavour: the ship and the attitude that changed the world (2018)

Mundle, Rob, Cook (2013)

Nugent, Maria, Captain Cook was here (2009)

Obeyesekere, Gananath, The apotheosis of Captain Cook: European mythmaking in the Pacific (1992)

O’Brian, Patrick, Joseph Banks, a life (1987)

Rienits, Rex and Rienits, Thea, The voyages of Captain Cook , 1968)

Robson, John, Captain Cook's war and peace: the Royal Navy years 1755-1768 (2009)

Sahlins, Marshall, How ‘natives’ think: about Captain Cook, for example (1995)

Saine, Thomas P., Georg Forster (1972)

Smith, Edward, The life of Sir Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society (1911)

Thomas, Nicholas, Cook: The extraordinary voyages of Captain James Cook (2003)

Villiers, Alan, Captain Cook, the seamen’s seaman: a study of the great discoverer (1967).

Organisation

The manuscripts of Cook and his associates are held in the Manuscripts Collection at various locations. They have been catalogued individually. Some of them have been microfilmed, such as the Endeavour journal (mfm G27412), the Endeavour log and letterbook (mfm G3921) and the Resolution letterbook (mfm G3758). The Endeavour journal and letterbook and the papers of Sir Joseph Banks have been digitised and are accessible on the Library’s website. The microfilms have also been catalogued individually and are accessible in the Newspaper and Microcopy Reading Room.

The paintings, drawings, prints and objects are held in the Pictures Collection, while the maps and published coastal views are held in the Maps Collection. They have been catalogued individually and many of them have been digitised.

Biskup, Peter, Captain Cook’s Endeavour Journal and Australian Libraries: A Study in Institutional One-upmanship , Australian Academic and Research Libraries , vol. 18 (3), September 1987, pp. 137–49.

Cook & Omai: The Cult of the South Seas , National Library of Australia, Canberra, 2001.

Dening, Greg, MS 1 Cook, J. Holograph Journal , in Cochrane, Peter (ed.), Remarkable Occurrences: The National Library of Australia’s First 100 Years 1901–2001 , National Library of Australia, Canberra, 2001.

Healy, Annette, The Endeavour Journal 1768–71 , National Library of Australia, Canberra, 1997.

Healy, Annette, ' Charting the voyager of the Endeavour journal ', National Library of Australia News, volume 7(3), December 1996, pp 9-12

Hetherington, Michelle, 'John Hamilton Mortimer and the discovery of Captain Cook', British Art Journal, volume 4 (1), 2003, pp. 69-77

First posted 2008 (revised 2019)

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James Cook’s First Voyage

Cook and the royal observatory greenwich.

After showing off his skills in charting and even astronomy, the Navy’s rising star and the Royal Observatory were bound to cross paths at some point. His observations and use of instruments like the Harrison-designed watch he took on his second voyage would tie their stories closely to each other from this point on.

The second Astronomer Royal Edmund Halley believed that he could accurately determine the distance between the planets if he could just get reliable observations around the planet of the highly anticipated transit of Venus. His successor Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne would sit on the board charged with organising the observations.

There was no telling what secrets would be unlocked with this essential piece of information and the effect it might have on astronomy and navigation. Cook was the obvious choice to lead an expedition down to the South Seas to take an observation from there.

There be monsters

In the 18th century, the Pacific Ocean was still virtually uncharted. Ever since Magellan made the first European crossing in 1520 there had been rumours of a large southern continent called  Terra Australis Nondum Cognita  (the southern land not yet known). French, Dutch and English sailors, including Francis Drake, had hunted in vain.

The expedition would be given a secret mission to find the southern continent before Britain’s rivals could lay claim to it.

Where did the first voyage go?

The  Endeavour  set off from Plymouth, and sailed around Cape Horn and into the Pacific, anchoring by the island of Tahiti. The islanders’ custom of decorating themselves by pricking their skin and dyeing it led to the fashion among sailors of tattooing.

After an idyllic stay in Tahiti, the  Endeavour  continued on to the North Island of New Zealand where they met Maori with war canoes, before sailing on to the South Island. They found that neither island was joined to a large southern continent.

The  Endeavour  continued towards Tasmania and the east coast of Australia discovered by the Dutchman, Tasman in 1759. Cook determined to survey the whole coast. They anchored in Botany Bay where noted naturalist Joseph Banks found many new species of plants.

The  Endeavour  was nearly wrecked on the Great Barrier Reef but repairs were made and the ship travelled northwards towards Batavia (modern Jakarta) where many of the crew died of malaria and dysentery, having successfully avoided scurvy.

A hero's return

The  Endeavour's  adventures quickly caught the imagination of the public on its return, although much of the perceived glory and glamour of this first voyage attached itself to the sociable and well-connected naturalist Joseph Banks.

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James Cook’s first voyage circumnavigated the globe in the ship Endeavour, and gave scientific members of the expedition an opportunity to collect specimens from previously unexplored habitats. Although the voyage was officially a journey to Tahiti to observe the 1769 transit of Venus across the sun, it also had a more clandestine mission from the Royal Society to explore the South Pacific in the name of England. Work was completed by botanists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander. Joseph Banks, who would later become Sir Joseph Banks and president of the Royal Society, was a wealthy young scientist. He invited his close friend Daniel Solander, a Swedish student of Linnaeus working in the natural history collections of the British Museum, to join him on the Endeavour expedition. Together they acted as the naturalists on the voyage, commanding several servants and artists, including Sydney Parkinson, and outfitted with an excellent array of scientific equipment. After setting out from London, the expedition stopped briefly at Madeira, a small Portuguese island in the Atlantic Ocean, and then continued on to Rio de Janiero, on the eastern coast of Brazil. Here, the expedition encountered one of its first major setbacks when the Portuguese governor Dom Antonio Rolim de Moura Tavare refused to allow anyone from the Endeavour to come on land except to acquire necessities. This restriction, however, didn’t stop the two determined botanists. Banks and Solander risked being arrested as spies or smugglers in order to sneak onshore to collect specimens around the city. Despite this difficulty, the expedition traveled on to Tierra del Fuego at the southern tip of South America, where they collected a large number of specimens despite bitterly cold weather that killed two members of the crew. In April of 1769, the expedition reached Tahiti, where they stayed until July. After viewing the transit of Venus on June 3, 1769, the expedition began mapping, exploring, and collecting specimens in the relatively unknown regions of New Zealand and the eastern coast of Australia (then called New Holland). The Endeavour continued its voyage mapping the eastern coast of Australia, narrowly avoiding shipwreck on the Great Barrier Reef, until it re-entered known waters near New Guinea in late August, 1770. During the last part of the voyage, the Endeavour stopped at the disease-ridden city of Batavia in Java and at the Cape of Good Hope in Africa, returning to England in July, 1771. Overall, the expedition was very successful, with little strife among the crew and no deaths from scurvy.

• Adams, Brian. The Flowering of the Pacific. Sydney: William Collins Pty, 1986.
• Rauchenberg, Roy A. “Daniel Carl Solander: Naturalist on the ‘Endeavour’,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, 58, no. 8 (1968): 1-66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1006027 (May 26, 2010).
• Allen, Oliver E. The Pacific Navigators. Canada: Time-Life Books, 1980.
• Merrill, Elmer Drew. The Botany of Cook’s Voyages and its Unexpected Significance in Relation to Anthropology, Biogeography and History. Waltham, Massachusetts: Chronica Botanica Co., 1954.
• Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) database, http://data.gbif.org/ (for information on plant species Dendrobium cunninghamii; accessed June 15, 2010).
• National Library of Australia. “South Seas: Voyaging and Cross-Cultural Encounters in the Pacific.” South Seas, n.d. http://southseas.nla.gov.au/. Contains maps and text of expedition journals by James Cook and Joseph Banks.

1768 - 1771

• New Zealand
• South Africa
• Rio de Janeiro
• Tierra del Fuego

Expedition name

Captain Cook’s 1768 Voyage to the South Pacific Included a Secret Mission

The explorer traveled to Tahiti under the auspices of science 250 years ago, but his secret orders were to continue Britain’s colonial project

Lorraine Boissoneault

It was 1768, and the European battle for dominance of the oceans was on. Britain, France, Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands had already spent several centuries traversing the globe in search of new land to conquer and resources to exploit, but the Pacific—and specifically, the South Seas—remained largely unknown. In their race to be the first to lay claim to new territory, the British government and the Royal Navy came up with a secret plan: Send a naval officer on a supposedly scientific voyage, then direct him to undertake a voyage of conquest for the fabled Southern Continent. The man chosen for the job was one James Cook, a Navy captain who also had training in cartography and other sciences.

Europeans already knew the Pacific had its share of islands, and some of them held the potential for enormous wealth. After all, Ferdinand Magellan became the first European to cross the Pacific Ocean way back in 1519, and by then it was already known that the “Spice Islands,” (in modern-day Indonesia) were located in the Pacific. Magellan was followed by a dozen other Europeans—especially Dutch and Spanish captains—over the next two centuries, some of them sighting the western shores of Australia, others identifying New Zealand. But the vastness of the Pacific Ocean, combined with the unreliability of maps, meant no one was sure whether the Southern Continent existed or had been discovered.

Even among the British, Cook wasn’t the first to set his sights on the South Pacific. Just a year earlier, Captain Samuel Wallis piloted the ship Dolphin to make first landing on Tahiti, which he christened George III Island. As for the British government, they had publicized their interest in the region since 1745, when Parliament passed an act offering any British subject a reward of £20,000 if they found the fabled northwest passage from Hudson Bay in North America to the Pacific. The British government wasn’t alone in its imperialist interests; the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman had already sighted an island off the south coast of Australia that would later be named after Tasmania him, and the Spanish had built fortifications on the Juan Fernández Islands off the west coast of Chile.

“For the Spaniards to fortify and garrison Juan Fernández meant that they intended to try to keep the Pacific closed,” writes historian J. Holland Rose . “The British Admiralty was resolved to break down the Spanish claim.”

But to do so without drawing undue attention to their goals, the Admiralty needed another reason to send ships to the Pacific. The Royal Society presented the perfect opportunity for just such a ruse. Founded in 1660 , the scientific group was at first little more than a collection of gentlemen with the inclination and resources to undertake scientific projects. As historian Andrew S. Cook (no apparent relation) writes , “The Society was in essence a useful vehicle for government to utilize the scientific interests of individual fellows, and for fellows to turn their scientific interests into formal applications for government assistance.” When the Royal Society approached the Navy, requesting they send a ship to Tahiti to observe the transit of Venus that would occur in 1769, it probably seemed like the perfect cover, Cook the scholar says.

The 1769 transit of Venus was the mid-18th-century version of the mania surrounding last year’s solar eclipse. It was one of the most massive international undertakings to date. Captain Cook’s crew, complete with astronomers, illustrators and botanists, was one of 76 European expeditions sent to different points around the globe to observe Venus crossing the sun. Scientists hoped that these measurements would help them quantify Earth’s distance from the sun and extrapolate the size of the solar system. The rare event was deemed so important that the French government, fresh off fighting the Seven Years’ War (French and Indian War) with England, issued an instruction to its war ships not to harass Cook. It wasn’t an undue precaution; French astronomer Guillaume Le Gentil traveled to India to observe the 1761 transit of Venus but ultimately missed the event because his ship had to outrun English men-of-wars, according to historian Charles Herdendorf .

Captaining the Endeavour , Cook departed from Plymouth 250 years ago on August 26, 1768, in order to arrive in Tahiti on time for the transit, which would happen on June 3, 1769. His path carried him across the Atlantic and around the difficult-to-traverse Cape Horn in South America toward the south Pacific. He carried with him sealed secret instructions from the Admiralty, which he’d been ordered not to open until after completing the astronomical work. Unfortunately for the scientists, the actual observations of the transit at points around the world were mostly useless. Telescopes of the period caused blurring around the planet that skewed the recorded timing of Venus passing across the sun.

But for Cook, the adventure was just beginning. “Cook left no record of when he opened the sealed packet of secret orders he’d been given by the Admiralty,” writes Tony Horwitz in Blue Latitudes: Boldly Going Where Captain Cook Has Gone Before . “But on August 9, 1769, as he left Bora-Bora and the other Society Isles behind, Cook put his instructions into action. ‘Made sail to the southward,’ he wrote, with customary brevity.”

The gist of those instructions was for Cook to travel south and west in search of new land—especially the legendary “Terra Australis,” an unknown continent first proposed by Greek philosophers like Aristotle, who believed a large southern continent was needed to balance out the weight of northern continents. In their instructions, the Royal Navy told Cook not only to map the coastline of any new land, but also “to observe the genius, temper, disposition and number of the natives, if there be any, and endeavor by all proper means to cultivate a friendship and alliance with them… You are also with the consent of the natives to take possession of convenient situations in the country, in the name of the King of Great Britain.”

Cook went on to follow those instructions over the next year, spending a total of 1,052 days at sea on this mission. He became the first European to circumnavigate and meticulously chart the coastline of New Zealand’s two islands, and repeatedly made contact with the indigenous Maori living there. He also traveled along the east coast of Australia, again becoming the first European to do so. By the time he and his crew (those who survived, anyway) returned to England in 1771, they had expanded the British Empire’s reach to an almost incomprehensible degree. But he hadn’t always followed his secret instructions exactly as they were written—he took possession of those new territories without the consent of its inhabitants, and continued to do so on his next two expeditions.

Even as he took control of their land, Cook seemed to recognize the indigenous groups as actual humans. On his first trip to New Zealand, he wrote , “The Natives … are a strong, well made, active people as any we have seen yet, and all of them paint their bod[ie]s with red oker and oil from head to foot, a thing we have not seen before. Their canoes are large, well built and ornamented with carved work.”

“It would be as wrong to regard Cook as an unwitting agent of British imperialism as [it would be] to fall into the trap of ‘judging him according to how we judge what happened afterwards,’” writes Glyndwr Williams . “His command of successive voyages indicated both his professional commitment, and his patriotic belief that if a European nation should dominate the waters and lands of the Pacific, then it must be Britain.”

But the toll of that decision would be heavy. Cook estimated the native population on Tahiti to be 204,000 in 1774. By the time the French took control of the territory and held a census in 1865, they found only 7,169 people of native descent . And as for the British Empire, the 1871 census found 234 million people lived in it—but only 13 percent were in Great Britain and Ireland, writes Jessica Ratcliff in The Transit of Venus Enterprise in Victorian Britain . From the Caribbean and South America to Africa to South Asia to now, thanks to Cook, Australia, the aphorism “the sun never sets on the British Empire” was borne. Cook’s expedition to conquer inhabited territory had repercussions for millions of people who would never actually see the nation who had claimed their homes.

For centuries, the myth of Cook’s voyage as an essentially scientific undertaking persisted, although plenty of people had already surmised the government's hand in Cook's journeys. Still, a full copy of the Admiralty’s “Secret Instructions” weren't made public until 1928. Today, Cook’s legacy is recognized more for what it was: an empire-building project dressed with the trappings of science.

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Lorraine Boissoneault | | READ MORE

Lorraine Boissoneault is a contributing writer to SmithsonianMag.com covering history and archaeology. She has previously written for The Atlantic, Salon, Nautilus and others. She is also the author of The Last Voyageurs: Retracing La Salle's Journey Across America. Website: http://www.lboissoneault.com/

The Ages of Exploration

Cook’s voyages map.

Quick Facts:

The map shows the three voyages of Captain James Cook. The first voyage is in red, the second voyage is in green and the third voyage is in blue. Following Cook’s death, the route his crew took is in the blue dashed line. (Credit: Andre Engels)

• Original "EXPLORATION through the AGES" site
• The Mariners' Educational Programs

British navigator James Cook charted New Zealand and Australia's Great Barrier Reef on his ship HMB Endeavour and later disproved the existence of the fabled southern continent Terra Australis.

(1728-1779)

Who Was James Cook?

James Cook was a naval captain, navigator and explorer who, in 1770, charted New Zealand and the Great Barrier Reef of Australia on his ship HMB Endeavour. He later disproved the existence of Terra Australis, a fabled southern continent. Cook's voyages helped guide generations of explorers and provided the first accurate map of the Pacific.

Early Life and Career

Cook was born in Marton-in-Cleveland, Yorkshire, England, on October 27, 1728, the son of a Scottish farmhand. As a teenager, Cook did farming work alongside his father until the age of 18 when he was offered an apprenticeship by a Quaker shipowner in a small seaside village near Whitby, England. The experience proved to be fortuitous for the future naval officer and explorer, bringing him in contact with both the ocean and ships along the port.

Naval Officer, Navigator and Explorer

After his return to England, Cook was chosen to circumnavigate and explore Antarctica. On this voyage, he charted present-day Tonga, Easter Island, New Caledonia, the South Sandwich Islands and South Georgia, and disproved the existence of Terra Australis, a fabled southern continent. Cook named the Hawaiian Islands the Sandwich Islands after the Earl of Sandwich, also known as John Montagu.

Later Years, Death and Legacy

During all his voyages, Cook successfully fought scurvy, a deadly disease caused by vitamin deficiency, by feeding his crew a diet that included watercress, sauerkraut and orange extract. He died in a skirmish with islanders during a winter layover in Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii, on February 14, 1779.

Today, Cook's voyages are credited with helping to guide generations of explorers and with providing the first accurate map of the Pacific, and many believe that he did more to fill the map of the world than any other explorer in history.

QUICK FACTS

• Name: James Cook
• Birth Year: 1728
• Birth date: October 27, 1728
• Birth City: Marton-in-Cleveland, Yorkshire, England
• Birth Country: United Kingdom
• Gender: Male
• Best Known For: British navigator James Cook charted New Zealand and Australia's Great Barrier Reef on his ship HMB Endeavour and later disproved the existence of the fabled southern continent Terra Australis.
• War and Militaries
• Astrological Sign: Scorpio
• Death Year: 1779
• Death date: February 14, 1779
• Death State: Hawaii
• Death City: Kealakekua Bay
• Death Country: United States

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James Cook's First Voyage

The royal navy research vessel the Endeavour allowed for one of the most celebrated voyages in history, in which Captain James Cook was credited for discovery of New Zealand and Australia (Finnis, 109). The general consensus after extensive scholarly debate is that the original intention of the voyage was astronomical (Finnis, 63). The Royal Society requested that the admiralty should send a ship as part of the international scientific enterprise to observe the transit of Venus in 1769, in which James Cook was appointed to lead as captain (Finnis, 63). What originated as a scientific enterprise turned into an expansive voyage with the official news of the discovery of Tahiti, and a sighting of land, possibly continental, to the south (Finnis, 64). The original intention of the voyage is an explanation for what sets the Endeavour apart in terms of strides made in natural history, in that they had a board of scientists with them in their travels. Cook was instructed to head south of Tahiti and conduct a search for Terra Australis Incognita . If found, Cook was to lay claim to it, map its coastline and offshore hazard, and note the bays and various geographical features of what he saw (Finnis, 62). The Royal Society also asked for  the kinds of animals, fauna, and food there, which required extensive journaling and collection of specimens to be brought back to England. Cook’s findings in Australia and New Zealand were major contributions to Great Britain, and he was celebrated as a national celebrity upon his return. 

James Cook - His First Voyage

James Cook was a skilled English explorer credited with charting the coasts of New Zealand and Australia, and discovering Hawaii, among other achievements. Cook was employed continuously in the British Navy and his pay was enough to set up a modest home for his wife and children in the Mile End Road in London. He was a full time surveyor and cartographer. His charts were regularly available from publishers in London.

Cook was born in Yorkshire, England in a town along the east coast. He is a quiet and capable man who has the ability to rise up to problems and somehow come away from them with much more than is expected. But acknowledgment and promotion come slowly to those who are quiet and capable. And so it took James Cook until the age of 40 to be promoted to lieutenant by the Royal Society for yet another ship to be sent to the Pacific.

In November of 1767 the Royal Society of England set up a committee to organize an expedition. The goals of the voyage were:

Find Terra Australis Witness the transit of Venus from the vicinity of King George's Island Collect various plant and animal specimens Circumnavigate the globe

It was to likely be at least a two year expedition. In 1768 the Whitby ship Earl of Pembroke was chosen by Cook and renamed the Endeavor . In his journal Cook describes Whitby ships as Strong with comparatively shallow draft, yet good carriers with plenty of room for men and stores. Such ships "were the safest kind, in which officers may, with the least hazard, venture upon a strange coast." Nor were they too large to be beached and repaired if such a need arose. A square hull would prevent the ship from tipping over in the event that she did come aground.

Roman ships were sometimes sheathed with lead. Arabs sheathed their ships with lime mixed with camel fat. European ships were sheathed with an extra layer of wooden planking. A coating of tero-deterrents was packed between the sheathing and the main hull. Cook chooses to add an extra layer of wooden planking to the hull to shield against borer worms that would surely eat into the ship when they reached the tropics.

Extensive work on the Endeavor continues at Deptford Yard in England. Large water pumps are installed, 8 tons of iron for ballast are stowed below, 3 masts are installed without a mizzen topsail. Cook choses not to add a new and experimental copper plating because he felt that it was too easily damaged.

A copper distilling apparatus for boiling sea water and condensing it into fresh water was stored below with so much else, capable of making 42 gallons of fresh water from 56 gallons of sea water. Fresh water was one of the most serious shipboard problems. Water could not be made to keep fresh in any container, hence the use of spirits. Sailors usually drank half a pint per day, sometimes in addition to a gallon of beer.

Quarters are made ready for a crew of 70 plus a naturalist by the name of Joseph Banks Esq. Mr. Banks was educated at Oxford and belonged to the landed elite class of eighteenth-century England. He views the expedition as his own, with James Cook only acting as his personal ship driver, a very skilled ship driver.

Mr. Banks' suit of 8 people includes botanists, artists, an astronomer, surgeons, and naturalists with enough equipment to last 2 years. Their equipment includes glass jars, pots for plants, canvases and paints, writing materials, spirits to preserve captured animals, wax and salts to do the same for seeds, and two large greyhounds. In his eyes, this is the true purpose of the expedition.

By 1761 a revolutionary chronometer used to determine longitude had been developed in England. Fortunately for Cook he sailed in possession of one such instrument and was spared one major navigational problem.

The upgrades to the ship were finished and on July 21, 1768, His Majesty's Endeavour sailed out of Deptford basin, stopped briefly at Galleon's Reach to take on guns and ammunition, and arrived in Portsmouth three weeks later. The sailors spend a few more days at home, saying their goodbyes, before returning for what would ultimately be a journey of almost three years.

The Journey

At two o'clock in the afternoon on August 26, 1768, the Endeavor sailed from her anchorage at Plymouth Harbor. By the time she sailed the ship was packed full of supplies of all kinds. Her ranks had swollen to 94 people aboard from the ages of 16 to 48, protected by ten carriage-guns and twelve swivels with ammunition and provisions for 18 months.

The initial route for this kind of journey was almost commonplace by this time for ships sailing out of Northern Europe. The Endeavor left Plymouth and sailed through the Bay of Biscay, past the coast of Portugal, then gradually veered westward off of the continent and out into the Atlantic. They pass of Finisterre, Spain after eight days out of Plymouth which was very good.

After Portugal the next milestone for a ship headed towards the Far East or South America was to reach the trade winds. The ship ran with the trade winds toward the equator, keeping to the Africa side of the Atlantic. The trade winds do eventually run out, leading to an area called the doldrums, where a ship could wait for days or weeks for any sign of wind.

The Endeavor met some stormy weather but nothing major. Still there was no windbreak built into the design of the ship. The deck was flat with open railing. She had a maximum speed of 8 knots.

Cook meant to touch the coast of South America at Rio, then head for Cape Horn (the southern tip of South America), after which he would be on his own. Cook made the ship to operate on three watches, which allowed the mariners to get a full nights sleep probably for the first time in their seagoing lives. All hands were provided with fishing gear for their entertainment and to add extra provisions. Easels were set up on deck daily to record the surroundings in paintings, and nights were reserved for drinking and journal writing. Banks and his fellows were the first university men that Cook had ever carried aboard his ship and they learned a great deal from each other.

The Endeavor spent a week in the doldrums which nobody minded. And once across, the passage of the southeast trades went by quickly. The ship took to port at Rio and sailors diligently began to prepare the the ship for its passage around Cape Horn.

Many great storms come from the west, and pass through the expanse between South America and the blizzard of Antarctica. Cook and his crew could not have possibly handled it better. They chose the course that the California clipper ships would later use, through the Straight of le Maire between Tierra del Fuego and Staten Island. The westward passage around the Horn was a sail of at lease 1,500 miles around 50˚ S. latitude.

Cook was two months out of Rio before his ship was in the Straight of le Maire. They were briefly struck my an intense offshore gale. It was Christmas time and summer in the southern hemisphere, but snow laid deep on the Patagonian mountains. Sailors were each issued jackets but there was little heating aboard the ship. They anchored at the most easterly point of Tierra del Fuego from which Mr. Banks and his scientists disembarked to briefly survey the land. Cook took his crew ashore to replenish supplies, mostly of firewood and water.

Taking advantage of all opportunities to sail westward, Cook was close to The Horn a few days later. As soon as a chance of observation offered, Cook and his navigation chief, Mr. Green, worked out their position to be 55˚ 59' S. Latitude and Longitude 68˚ 13' W. This was just one mile out in latitude and a degree out in longitude from where they thought they actually were. But one degree so far south is less than 40 miles. It was a remarkable result worked out from observations taken from the deck of that heaving little ship and calculations made by candlelight inside the ship's great cabin. They worked alongside Mr. Banks and his botanists who were busy categorizing all sorts of plants and flowers mostly unknown to Europe.

The Pacific

The Endeavor makes it past Cape Horn and with winds in their favor proceeds south and west without being blown back. They are now further south than any ship had ever been, some 600 miles from The Horn, and the cold gales blowing from the south had the sting of ice in them. The endless roll of the sea showed obviously that it came from a very long fetch. They could see that there was no sign of continental land for thousands of miles in front of them.

They had been sailing for five weeks since Cape Horn and it was enough. The wind changed to a breeze from east-south-east and Cook knew what to do with it. He went north at full sail. Penguins were seen leaping above water to observe the curious ship. The crew stopped briefly to get into small boats to shoot any birds they may take as specimens.

A few days later the The Endeavor sailed past 50˚ S. near 90˚ W. in the Pacific, 38 days from when they were at 50˚ S. in the Atlantic. Cook continued to press north. His instructions did not require him to search particularly for Terra Australis at this point in the voyage but rather to reach King George's Island (Tahiti) in time to observe the transit of Venus and search for the continent afterward.

The Endeavor did not have a sick man on board and were fully stocked with supplies. The voyage had not run into any major catastrophes around Cape Horn although there was still plenty of hard wind including heavy squalls which split the main topsail and bent another, damage that was repairable. Cook took no chances with anything. He had the marines aboard spend considerable time at small arms practice, and he ordered three of the carriage guns brought on deck and lashed down. Now they were at full sail. The Endeavor sailed 140 miles on her fastest recorded day between Cape Horn and Tahiti.

The Endeavor entered the tropics on March 25, 1769 on longitude 128˚ W. They sailed until they spotted an atoll covered in palm trees. There was no suitable place to anchor nor was there a way into the lagoon for anything larger than a canoe. The inhabitants did not appear to be friendly either, lining the beaches waving clubs at the ship. The Endeavor sailed from atoll to atoll, a very dangerous practice, until they finally spotted the high mountains of Tahiti on April 11 th . Cook anchored his ship in Matavai Bay on the 13 th . Canoes of Tahitians came out carrying the green bough of peace but none would come aboard, only tossing up coconuts and fruit and accepting beads thrown down to them in return.

Tahiti had previously been discovered by Samuel Wallis aboard the Dolphin . A man named Mr. Gore from that expedition was along for Cook's journey and he was delighted to return to the island.

Relations with the natives were generally good. There was some thievery, to which Cook responded to by taking local chiefs captive until the items were returned. Two of the marines deserted the expedition and took local wives. On a proper day the transit of Venus was successfully observed. Cook grew ever more concerned that more of his crew might prefer the island to life in 18 th century England. The ship stayed three months in Matavai Bay, during which everything above the water line was restored and supplies fully replenished.

The Transit of Venus

The crew had previously explained to the natives that their main reason for coming to the island was to witness the transit of Venus across the face of the Sun. On June 3, 1769, without a cloud in the sky, they successfully witnessed the event. Cook recorded in his journal that "We very distinctly saw an Atmosphere or dusky shade round the body of the Planet which very much disturbed the times of the contacts particularly the two internal ones." Sunlight filtering through the planet's atmosphere greatly diminished the precision with which they could time the transit. Because of this, Cook's measurements differed from those of Charles Green, the ship's astronomer, by as much as 42 seconds.

Other observations of Venus done at the same time around the globe were similarly inacurate, and as such made it difficult to determine a scale of the solar system as was planned. More accurate observations would have to wait until 120 years later when Venus once again passed between Earth and the Sun.

Many Tahitians volunteered to go with the ship but Cook would only take one, Tupia, to assist with local exploration. On July 13, 1769 the Endeavor sailed from the bay with the flag of England flying aft. Mr. Banks took Tupia to the topmast to have one last look at Tahiti and noted a tear on his face as the island disappeared over the horizon. After brief stops at other islands in the archipelago the Endeavor sailed for Bora Bora. They then set off in search of Terra Australis and the east coast of New Zealand.

New Zealand

On October 6 th , 1769, a small boy who was at the masthead called out "Land!", wrote Banks in his journal. The passage from Tahiti had been six excruciating weeks, the worst of which was through the "Roaring Forties." At last they had found a large expanse of land stretching for the entire horizon. Cook and his crew were eager to determine the exact shape of this new found landmass even if it took them a year to explore it. The island they had discovered was New Zealand.

Relations with the natives were not encouraging. The natives themselves had come from the sea to conquer their island, and had no intention of seeing the same thing happen to them. Cook began the extraordinary task of circumnavigating the two islands of New Zealand, starting with the northern island. They sailed north along the east coast in what comprised of over 2,500 miles of extremely difficult sailing along a rugged and uncharted coast, much of it exposed to the Roaring Forties. He was as far from his home base of England as he could possibly get in a small ship that had already been sailing for over a year. If the ship were lost, no one would know where to come looking for them. Cook and his crew sailed on, determined to put New Zealand on a map no matter how long it took or what the difficulties were.

Sailing close to shore was incredibly dangerous, but if they did not get close to the coast nothing would be discovered. The ships sails had to be perfectly positioned so as to keep her close to shore without being blown into it and wrecked. One wrong move meant they would likely never see home again. The reality of landing such sailing ships was incredibly difficult as well.

It took James Cook and his crew over six months to chart the coasts of both islands. Beautiful coves were found like Ship Cove in Queen Charlotte's Sound where Cook intentionally grounded the ship and repaired the entire bottom.

On March 14 of 1770, the Endeavor was sailing along the southwestern coast of New Zealand. It was a beautiful day with the sun lighting up the snow capped mountains as well as what was presumably ore shining along the cliffs. A crack was seen between the cliffs that lead to a valley between the mountains at the end of a fjord. Banks requested that they land the ship at the end of this fjord. Fjords are terribly dangerous places to take sailing ships into and as such Cook refuses to land. He knows that if they did enter the fjord they would likely have to wait a very long time for winds that would allow them to leave it. It was a moment that Banks would not forget.

Mr. Banks and his men fit in very well with the crew of the Endeavor . There is little evidence of any friction written down in the crew's journals. However it is revealed in Banks' writings decades later that he still harbored some bitterness towards James Cook for disobeying him, not taking the ship into this particular fjord. It is once again revealed that Banks viewed Cook as a type of personal driver, taking him wherever he happened to want to go.

Australia and the Great Barrier Reef

Cook then sailed west to fulfill his task of discovering and charting Terra Australis , if it existed. At last on April 20, 1770, Cook and his crew sail upon the southeast coast of Australia. Cook apparently does not consider this his discovery, for the earlier explorations of Tasman had led him there.

The little Endeavor sailed north charting as much as they could, and understandably missing much as well. The coast they now sailed along was over 2,000 miles long and they had already been over 20 months at sea by this point. The only way to really examine a coast is to row ashore and set up instruments. To do this along the entire coast of Australia would take years. Cook does land to raise the British flag, taking possession of the continent for King George, as well as to catch fish and replenish what supplies they could. Banks and his men collect many samples of plants and birds, and the giant gum trees, but all attempts to learn anything from the aborigines fails. The indigenous people stay out of the way except when they had to use canoes, "the worst I think I ever saw," says Cook, to fish.

They then entered the labyrinth of the Great Barrier Reef. The reef is 1,200 miles long and sometimes over 100 miles wide. Cook sails north inside the reef, with boats ahead of the Endeavor taking soundings. After 1,000 miles of uneventful sailing along the coast, during a silent and moonlit night, the Endeavor struck. The crew races to take down the sails so that no more damage is made. The tide was on its way out. Luckily the ship was taking on no water. Soundings under where she had struck showed four feet where just nearby there were three or four fathoms.

All hands worked feverishly to take the sails down. The square hull Cook had chosen proved its worth now. A ship with a more pitched bottom would have fallen over and become completely wrecked. They tossed overboard as much weight as possible to lighten the ship, including six cannons and their carriages. Day came and at high tide the men heaved on attached ropes but the Endeavor would not budge. Tide began to ebb and she began to leak, then leak faster. Sailors and passengers manned three pumps, the fourth would not work, but the water could not be made to go down. Now things were desperate. Luckily the sea remained smooth.

That night's high tide finally lifted her off the reef but there was now almost four feet of water inside. There she sat barely afloat with the reef holding her up, but for how long? With the pumps holding the water off Cook decides to heave the Endeavor off the reef. Under light sail the crew heads toward a small harbor to beach the ship and repair her somehow. While on the way the crew draped a sail underneath the ship to hold bits of oakum, wool, and dung against the hull to hopefully seal up the opening, a technique called "fothering."

The Endeavor was saved. Only after she was beached did they realize how close they were to loosing the ship. A piece of the reef was still lodged in the largest hole. After weeks of hard work camped at the mouth of the Endeavor River, the hull was adequately repaired and the crew set sail again early in August of 1770.

They then sailed north until they found a small opening in the reef. Cautiously they made their way through until they reached the strait leading them away from Australia. Cook sailed on toward Java, thanking God there was only one Great Barrier Reef. In his two Pacific voyages later in life, he never approached this area again.

Batavia, Indonesia

On October 10 th of 1770, after nearly two years without any news or mail of any kind, Cook and his crew learn of the impending American Revolution when they port in Java. Cook had his letters ready to be sent to Admiralty and he informs them that there is no great rich and exploitable continent to give them in exchange for the America they were shortly to loose. The ship spent three months in Java for further repairs and to rig the entire ship again. Cook takes on 19 new sailors, many from Scandinavia and Holland.

Batavia was a horribly unsanitary place and nearly the entire crew including Captain Cook were struck by malaria. Seven sailors die while in port. There is much a good captain can do to keep his crew healthy at sea, but the diseases at the Dutch-Indonesian port were much more defiant. The Endeavor staggered west into the Indian Ocean through the Strait of Sunda still riddled with disease. They were 70 days away from the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa. At times there were only twelve men aboard well enough to run the sip. The dead were left at sea wrapped in canvas. Cook took on another 10 sailors at the Cape of Good Hope. The deaths continued until they reached the Atlantic.

Home at last

From here on the voyage was pleasant. The ship was thoroughly cleaned and polished to a standard worthy of admiral's inspection. Banks and what was left of his scientific team continued recording everything they saw including St. Helena and Ascention Island. The winds were fantastic and the Endeavor records sailing 855 miles in six days while in the Atlantic. Brief encounters with other ships in the area told of how there were wagers in England that the ship was lost at sea, as there had not been any communication from her in so long.

As they sailed into the English Cannel, the crews of other ships stared at the Endeavor , wondering what ship this was. Surely this could not be James Cook and Mr. Banks, as they had been reported missing for some time. Many were shocked to learn that it was the Endeavor back from circumnavigating the globe. She anchored at Downs on Saturday, July 13, 1771. There were 56 men left of the 94 who had left England almost 3 years earlier. And of course the goat from the previous Dolphin voyage, the first goat in history to make two circumnavigations.

The Endeavor's return home was front page news in all the news papers across England. Publications mainly attributed the accomplishment to Mr. Banks and his team. When Captain Cook was mentioned, his name was usually incorrectly spelled, "Cooke." The London Evening Post of July 15, 1771, wrote "Captain Cooke, from the East Indies with Mr, Banks, Dr. Solander, Mr. Green and other ingenious gentlemen on board for the South Seas."

This was about the only mention of Captain "Cooke." Other publications would write of how Mr. Banks had discovered a southern continent. At 43 years old, Cook was still officially a Lieutenant. He had hoped to now be promoted to Captain but, was instead promoted only to Commander, a position that implied that the position of Captain was still far off. There was still some failure in appreciation for James Cook. The glory for the Endeavor's voyage was given to Mr. Banks even by the Royal Society.

Commander Cook returned to his home on Mile End Road where, after being gone for 3 years, learned of the deaths of his daughter, Elizabeth, three months earlier, and his son Joseph in infancy. He had never met Joseph, who was born within days of the Endeavor's sailing. He was briefly appointed to a captain's berth at the historic Greenwich Hospital, a job that offered him generous income and no excess of duties. Mrs. Cook must have appreciated this time with her husband.

Cook and Banks wrote a book together about the journey along with their editor, a gentleman named Hawkesworth. The book was a huge success across Europe. It was indeed no small feat for a ship from England to traverse the Pacific. No Japanese, no Chinese, Indian, or Arab knew how to sail it.

Cook's next assignment was aboard the Resolution , the flagship for his second voyage, and would set sail on July 13, 1772. They were headed again for the Pacific, this time on a west to east direction.

Other Classic History articles on the voyages of Captain James Cook include:    Captain James Cook - His Second Voyage    Captain James Cook - His Third Voyage

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73 - 209 - Thanks for the detailed story of the Battle of Lepanto… as a dedicated lover-of-Venice, I have seen the paintings in the Doges Palace and knew of its significance. Here are the details. As noted, this ranks w/the defense of Vienna in 1683(?); check,as well, the legendary defense of Malta sometime in the late 1400’s; as deep as it gets.

71 - 187 - Thank you so much for this.

71 - 189 - You're welcome. Thank you for reading.

71 - 204 - Too kind :) Thanks for reading Karen.

71 - 203 - Wonderful precise information, Thanks so much !

71 - 217 - Thanks for sharing inspiring rare history on Druids. Even I'm Indonesian..don't know why I like to.learn on old European belief systems such as paganism & druids :)

69 - 177 - Sorry, but I do wish people who write articles mentioning astrology would go to the trouble of actually learning about astrology. The zodiac has nothing whatsoever to do with constellations, apart from the Greeks giving names to the signs from some of the constellations at that time. The zodiac was designed by ancient Babylonians, based on their calendar of 12 (and occasionally 13) lunar months, with 12 equal signs fixed to the March equinox. It has always been about the signs. The Western Tropical Zodiac will always begin with 0 degrees Aries on the March equinox and the stars have no relevance to this at all. The precession of the equinoxes and the alleged astrological ages are a minor oddity which astrologers generally have very little interest in.

69 - 186 - If the stars have no relevance to astrology, what relevance do the planets have? Are the positions of the planets determined in relation to the “signs” as given by astrology, or are their positions determined in relation to their apparent positions relative to the ecliptic and the stars visible in that celestial band.? If we’re to disregard the apparent positions of the stars, why bother to observe the positions of the planets, either?

69 - 199 - This article is about precession, which is obviously tangential to astrology, but the article never mentions the word. I'm not sure what you're going on about. The subject matter, especially in reference to constellations, is absolutely appropriate, as the ancients clearly were concerned about the positions of stars and planets, to think otherwise is absurd. The Egyptians understood the ages beginning and ending with certain star positions, whoever built the lion sphinx statue aimed it at Leo (the Lion CONSTELLATION), which tells us that it was likely built during that zodiacal age. I'm not sure how you can disregard the obvious tie-ins to key moments in history with what's marked out in the sky via constellations.

69 - 218 - Very understandable article , just what I was looking for as I have no background in astronomy. Thanks for your efforts.

67 - 220 - Search and end the answer

67 - 221 - Search and end the answer

66 - 176 - Truly David Livingstone was a greatest missionary and explorer in Africa no one else other than him from Europe has left such a record. He will always be remembered for his great work in Africa.

64 - 128 - Wonderful story. Excellent history. Great Christmas Song too! Especially Luke 6:38

64 - 130 - I enjoyed playing piano recitals of Good King Wenceslas as a child - for the old folks in the nursing homes in our town. Thank you for the history on this beloved King.

64 - 135 - Thank you Teresa for your kindness to the elderly. Nursing homes are filled with lonely souls who sincerely appreciate such acts of generosity.

64 - 210 - I’ve played this for years! even posted a recording on YouTube under “Safe Sax Trio” from December 2020. it has a special connotation as Mi amor,Blanka, is Czech, born and grew up in Prague,Bohemia…St.Wenceslas being the patron Saint of the Czech People.????

61 - 95 - h

60 - 125 - "The Indo-Europeans were a people group originating in the plains of Eastern Europe, north of the Baltic and Caspian Seas in present day Ukraine and southern Russia." Surely you meant the Black sea and not the Baltic....

60 - 126 - Ha, yes I meant the Black Sea. Thanks Pgolay.

56 - 83 - Wild temperature swings throughout the years!

56 - 84 - Indeed! All the more reason to be thankful for the forests we are enjoying today.

55 - 137 - Interesting article! I'm curious, what were the sources about Hippocrates and his communications with Athens and Persia in regard to the plague?

55 - 138 - Thank you! Hippocrates' own writings on this subject have been translated into English. Wesley D. Smith has some good modern English translations: https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0674995260 Artaxerxes sends a letter to Hippocrates begging for help: "the renown of whose techne has reached even to me, as much gold as he wants, and anything else that he lacks in abundance, and send him to me" Hippocrates replies: "Tell the King I have sufficient food, clothing, and shelter, and all the necessities that I require for life, and that I have no wish for Persian wealth or to save foreigners from disease, since they are enemies of the Greeks."

55 - 145 - I really like Athens because it is truly a unique place with a rich history and unique distinctive features. Of course, there are a great deal of reasons to fall in love with this city because it’s a true calling card of Greece. After reading your article, I became more convinced that it is an incredible city in which ancient traditions and modernity harmoniously intertwine with each other into a single whole. It is so cool that you mentioned the Temple of Poseidon because I think that it’s such a wonderful way to delve into the history of Athens and feel the atmosphere of ancient times. I think that Athens is the best city in Greece for wine connoisseurs because it seems to me that you can try delicious and rare Greek wines there, getting unforgettable impressions. Art and culture in Athens are so incredible and multifaceted that it can’t leave you indifferent. It is an indisputable fact that the halls of the Museum of Cycladic Art are impressive in their scope and they have very interesting interactive expositions. It is so cool that there are so many incredible things and I think you will always find something to look at.

43 - 14 - Interesting article. An enjoyable read. Thanks

43 - 15 - Glad you enjoyed it!

40 - 149 - I was wondering where that cross at the top of the page is located? It is quite impressive and I stare at it a great deal! If you can help me I would greatly appreciate it! God bless you!!!

40 - 152 - William, The peak is Punta Selassa in the province of Cuneo, Italy. You can hike to the cross starting from the village of Calcinere on the Po River in the valley below. God bless you too!

39 - 81 - IS IT Possible to buy a hybrid checknut IMMUNE TO THE BLIGHT?

39 - 116 - very good information,we have many of these trees in our neighborhood. they were originally planted in the 1930's when the area was a berry farm and orchard. they have now spread over about a 50 acre residential area growing in just about any vacant space and producing huge amounts of nuts. Gig harbor washington.

39 - 180 - god, I had never heard of this. what a tragic story. Those forests must have been a true sight to see.

39 - 181 - I appreciate that you mentioned that chestnut trees are included in our holiday experience. My aunt mentioned last night that she and my mother planned to have information about hybrid chestnut trees for the farm project development they want. She asked if I had any idea what would be the best option to consider. I love this helpful article, I'll tell her she can consult a trusted hybrid chestnut trees service in town as they can provide information about their trees.

39 - 184 - This is incredibly sad. We have lost so much….thank you…anyone who has protected this wonderful, God given tree.

38 - 65 - Wow! That was quite an ordeal.

38 - 124 - Amazing story! Growing up in the Antelope Valley (Edwards AFB's location), we heard of a great number of accidents as really smart and competent test pilots pushed the limits of technology. My dad knew one "sled driver" who flew sailplanes as a hobby!

37 - 61 - The Frost Fair sounds like fun.

37 - 62 - Interesting article. This is the first I've heard of " Frost Fair ".

37 - 63 - I imagine it would be a lot of fun. Spontaneous community events like this always have a unique feeling to them.

37 - 64 - It was definitely a special phenomenon in the history of England.

36 - 11 - Very informative article. I love watching the lady play the organ at church and have always wondered what's under the hood.

36 - 12 - A very interesting and informative article. I have often wondered what the stops were for. The history and description of operation answered many questions.Thankyou.

36 - 13 - Glad it could help Kim. There is certainly quite a bit going on inside of these beautiful machines.

36 - 79 - Very well thought out article. I ran a small organ shop for 40 years that built some major organs around the world - one in Toyota-shi Concert Hall with about 4000 pipes. I am now retired, but want to write a book to pass my thoughts on to future generations of organ builders. Could I borrow some of the historical information you put together as you have said so much with less words and really good. Thanks!

36 - 80 - Thanks for your kind words John. Yes please use whatever you feel would be useful, just reference this website as a source. The goal of this website is to simply pass on our history to future generations. So if I can help with your book at all please reach out to me. Use any of the images or references in this article if you think they would be useful.

36 - 87 - A most helpful article which has answered many questions The organ is fascinating and invaluable. It hasn’t yet replaced orchestras

36 - 88 - A very interesting article, but who squeezed the bellows? Was it done by boys and how many and would they have been building up the air pressure for a time before the organ was to be played?

36 - 89 - In all my research I found that a volunteer from the church would power the smaller organs. For larger organs someone was paid to pump the bellows. These larger ones would have 3 or more bellows.

36 - 96 - Liked it! Very useful

36 - 140 - The article mentions that Roman and Byzantine organs were made of bronze (copper + tin) pipes, but there's nothing mentioned about modern organs. Are they made of brass (copper + zinc)?

36 - 188 - Thanks for this great article

35 - 58 - Such an incredible voyage.

35 - 59 - you should write an article about cook's third voyage

35 - 60 - Its in the works, check back here in a few months. Glad you enjoyed this one.

34 - 54 - This article is a nice little gift for the upcoming Christmas season.

34 - 55 - The song touches my life day by day and I needed musical copy of the same (notation). Thanx

34 - 56 - thanks NOEL! I pick a theme for Christmas each year and this is it for 2019. Christmas is everyday - as Jesus is with us everyday, renewing us with his love! Noel! Maria

34 - 57 - Great choice! True that Jesus is with us every day, not only around Christmas. Merry Christmas Maria

33 - 52 - Nice article!!!

33 - 53 - Thank you! It was a lot of work but I think it turned out not half bad.

31 - 46 - This makes me curious as to why Christianty succeeded spreading predominately westward from its Roman epicenter, yet failed doing the same eastward. Any ideas?

31 - 47 - How does the basilica and its parts like the nav relate to the Christian ceremony?

31 - 48 - Hi! I'm an architecture student and I would like to know what are other examples of Early Christian Churches and also their parts (name of the rooms, space, etc.); I just wanted them as references for my future subjects :D Thanks a lot

31 - 49 - I would have to do some more research on the later years of Christianity, but I would say that Christianity did spread eastward. This was likely halted by the pushback of Islam in the seventh century. Egypt was as much of a Christian stronghold as Rome until the Muslim conquest in the seventh century.

31 - 50 - The Nave is a space specifically reserved for procession of the choir or acolytes from the entrance towards the front of the church. Church goers sit in pews on the outer sides of the nave. Next is the Transept, which is where a priest or minister gives the sermon. Above that and at the front of the sanctuary is the choir loft.

31 - 51 - I spent quite a bit of time researching the churches in this article and these were the oldest ones I could find. If I find more I will certainly add them to the article. See the comment above for a list of the separate rooms of a church. Thanks for reading and good luck to you in architecture school!

31 - 75 - Are there any other examples of early Christians of this time period translating roman civic buildings into their new society?

31 - 76 - Ben, the churches listed in this article are the earliest ones that I could find that were constructed originally for the specific purpose of housing Christian worship services. Other churches exist from this time period that were simply converted from the worship of Roman gods. The Temple d'Auguste et de Livie in France is one such example. So old Roman temples were converted to churches but there is very little evidence that Roman civic buildings were converted to churches.

31 - 90 - Hello, thank you for an intresting article. Would you recommend any online resources or books one could use to explore Christian Architecture space? I will appreciate your feedback.

31 - 91 - Monuments of the Early Church by Walter Lowrie was my main source for this article. You can read it here . Other than this book, there are very few sources available for architecture of the early church, so I had to look at individual churches and compare them to established architectural norms from the rest of society at the time. There are plenty of resources available for church architecture after 1000 AD, such as Britannica.

31 - 97 - hi,this is malar.thank you for your wonderful and helpfull article. i need an article about egptian civilization like this. did you have any idea about preparing it?

31 - 98 - Glad you enjoyed it Malar. I have not thought of looking into Egyptian architecture. But it would certainly be interesting to see if the architecture made some kind of progression as the centuries went on. I may look into that in the future, thanks for your suggestion!

31 - 101 - Hi, i enjoyed reading your post. I wanted to know in what period does Paleo-Christian architecture took place?

31 - 103 - Thanks! Paleo-Christian describes the time period before the Byzantine Era. This could be before the dedication of Constantinople in 330, or before the Age of Justinian in the 6th century.

31 - 105 - A roof is arguably the most important aspect of every house - it protects your property and those living in it. As time goes by, the structure or appearance of the roof may be damaged, and need repairs or maintenance. Contact our roofing experts today for a free, no-obligation appointment and estimate. https://www.stgeorgeroofing.com.au/

31 - 117 - Hi, thank you for all the historic information here. Please can you throw more light on how the church started under the trees and haw they transcended to church buildings. Thanks.

31 - 200 - One of the most iconic features of early Christian architecture is the basilica plan, characterized by a rectangular nave, side aisles, and an apse.

30 - 112 - Thank you for the story of 3 amazing musicians

30 - 113 - Thanks for reading David!

30 - 133 - beautiful story! i love her work and im so happy her storys getting told more and more

30 - 178 - I was watching the movie song of Love and I wanted to find out some different questions and this website popped up and I was mesmerized. I love this! Thank you for sharing this

30 - 179 - Thank you for reading! I have never seen that movie, thanks for recommending it.

30 - 190 - Wonderful story, on May 7th I am going to Toronto for the concert in memory of Brahms(it his birthday),very excited !

30 - 191 - That sounds amazing! I hope you enjoy the concert, thanks for reading.

30 - 212 - i first learnt it from my piano teacher,but i love this story,so i decided to search it up.Your web was the first to pop up, so i clicked in and discovered a lot more deeper in their relationship.Overall,i love your informational text!

30 - 213 - i first learnt it from my piano teacher,but i love this story,so i decided to search it up.Your web was the first to pop up, so i clicked in and discovered a lot more deeper in their relationship.Overall,i love your informational text!

30 - 219 - Thank you Sara! I'm happy you enjoyed it.

29 - 44 - What a beautifully written and illustrated article.

29 - 45 - Thanks Paul. Its a lot of fun to put yourself in the shoes of people in the past, and try to see the Universe from their perspective.

29 - 104 - I enjoyed your paper very much. Thank you for writing it.

29 - 201 - Thanks for the wrintings please provide more coz i loved these ones.

28 - 42 - Makes one wonder: without horrific barbarism, would have global civilization expansion been delayed?

28 - 43 - The threat of unexpected attacks probably did motivate people to work together a little more for the purpose of defense. I would say that adversity of any kind betters individuals as well as civilization as a whole.

27 - 40 - Wowzers! I can't wait till the next solar eclipse!!!

27 - 41 - I loved your blog article. Really Cool. dkekkcedkdca

26 - 37 - This website really helped me when doing an assignment on James Cook! Thanks so much for the great information on here

26 - 38 - write an article about his third voyage as well

26 - 39 - Glad it could help Ben! I have an article about Cook's third voyage in the works so check back here in the future. Thanks for reading!

25 - 36 - Thank you Janet! I try to make these articles as short and concise as possible but most of the time they end up being so long because there's just so much to say. Glad to hear I accomplished those goals on this article and I'm glad you enjoyed it!

25 - 35 - Enjoyed your history of personal wealth. Quick, easy to read and understand and interesting! Looking forward to reading the other articles. Thank you for sharing Janet ( In California )

25 - 169 - Very nice… I really like your blog as well as website. Very useful information and worth reading. Thanks.

24 - 71 - Thank you for your summation of the Christmas Truce. I was searching for the hymn, "Dona Nobis", when I came across your article. Now I can share both historical items with my nine-year-old granddaughter who is very interested in what our soldiers have endured and done for us.

24 - 72 - Thank you for reading Susan. I'm happy to hear that younger people are interested in our ancestor's sacrifice for us. Its wonderful that you're taking the time to talk to her about these kinds of things, they are not easy to hear or completely understand. When she is older you could share another article I have regarding The Great War titled Western Civilization prior to World War I .

24 - 93 - I heard about this truce many years ago and just had to try and find the background. I have thought of this for many many years and it pulls at my heart strings every time I hear Silent Night. Nit being directly connected to Military I wonder, “do this truce still happen each year on Christmas Eve?” I sure hope it do. War is such a terrible thing. My wish is for everyone lot live in peace. What a wonderful world it would be.

24 - 214 - very cool article.

24 - 215 - Hi, why this passage

23 - 25 - Years ago we sang with a quire the song Dona Nobis. During that song I had to sing English text. The words were if I rember well If I had word... Do you happen to know where I can find this version of Dona Nobis. Gr, Frans Pennings Cuijk. Holland.

23 - 26 - If this is in reference to the Mozart traditional Dona Nobis Pacem that is commonly featured many times on U Tube etc, The one with 5 verses each of different melody. why can it not be found as a recording, cd or whatever for sale, anywhere. Do you know a source? John P. Thank you.

23 - 27 - lovely

23 - 28 - I live in a retirement village and am aged 80. Eight of us, with the aid of one who was a music teacher, are trying to learn Dona Nobis Pacem to sing at our village's annual variety concert - without an accompanist! Please wish us luck! :)

23 - 29 - 1. Snobbish attitude towards "folk Music) 2. Peace is welcomed all the year round, not only at Christmastime.

23 - 30 - Frans, If you are wanting to download the version on this page you should try this link below. They have three versions of the song there. If you are looking for a version of the text in another language please let me know and I will make a page with the text in that language for you. http://www.westminsterdayton.org/music/listen.html

23 - 31 - More like a distain for what is called "academic." I agree but the point still stands that it is sung more often around Christmastime.

23 - 32 - Good luck Margaret. Our Men's choir in Sydney sang another (non-Mozart) version of Pacem. Halfway through, we froze, and only slowly found our peace.

23 - 33 - Thank you, John. Hope we don't freeze, but then it's warmer up here in Brisbane. :)

23 - 34 - Good luck to you Margaret! Post a link to your performance if at all possible. This is a beautiful song and every rendition is unique.

23 - 92 - no

23 - 121 - I must say I'm really impressed by the nice write-up you have here. You actually did a great job, unlike most bloggers I've seen on the internet talking about this same topic. Just reading the first few paragraphs, I was already locked in the content. Bravo and keep up the good work. If you have the time, I would appreciate it if you could help me rate my blog .

23 - 127 - Thank you for providing this service! My husband and I are doing a concert at a retirement home tomorrow (voice and Ukrainian bandura) with a mixture of Ukrainian and other music,and I couldn't locate the sheet music to check what to say about this song's origins in the introduction. I typed Dona Nobis Pacem into Google, and boom, there was your article with exactly what I needed! 16th-17th century unknown German composer.

23 - 134 - Bach's "Dona Nobis Pacem" in his great B minor mass is as beautiful as music or man can get.

22 - 119 - not good

21 - 22 - Abd al Rahman needed just a little more patience. Islam would take over Europe. Sadly,the pride, heritage and national boundaries of these countries are disappearing.

21 - 23 - Damn i love history i hope i dont die soon so i can see the advancement of modern society.

21 - 24 - That does appear to be the case at the moment. But it is anyone's guess what the next era in history will be like.

21 - 82 - This is a great summary of the Battle of Tours. It amazes me that this great battle is not more known to western society. As you say in the final para "a major turning point in western civilisation" yet very few know it.

21 - 86 - Thanks Peter. I wish we were taught more history in general but especially events like this one. We all have an amazing story.

21 - 85 - If you do then make sure to write your experiences down somehow. People in the future will be very interested in your perspective.

21 - 114 - Tg

21 - 171 - Thanks, I love history and believe that it is important for us all to understand our past so that we can learn from our mistakes. This article gave me heaps of info. Thanks for being willing to take the time to help others learn about our past. It truly is amazing - Anonymous

19 - 18 - Thanks for an astute summary. I am currently reading Barbara Tuchman's book on this period "The Proud Tower". What an amazing era. Such hubris. Such arrogance. Unfortunately, as always those taking the risks and making idiot decisions did not pay the bill. In fact they became more wealthy out of the war. What do you thing the next period in world history will bring? At least today there is no irrational optimism about the future as at the end of the nineteenth century. Maybe that is a start?

19 - 19 - Very interesting and insightful. Perhaps an article on the Lost Generation would be a good companion piece. I believe WW2 broke out in 1939, not 1940 (unless one counts the Asian-Pacific theater in which hostilities began in 1937).

19 - 20 - The end of any era in history severely challenges a culture's values. If you were to question national pride or absolute duty to your country prior to WWI you would likely have been executed. This shows just how entrenched cultural values can be. That being said, any prediction of what the next era in our history will be would be offensive to just about anyone who read it. I will guess that a civil war in England will be the event at which historians in the future will determine as the marker for the end of the Modern Era. I tend to wish there was more irrational optimism about the future in our time. WWI was a tremendous event matched only by the 30 years war or the Plague in its destructiveness. Maybe quite a bit of our cultural energy was destroyed as a result of the Great War. Thank you for the book recommendation, I'll definitely give it a look.

19 - 21 - Thanks for the suggestion! I will add that to my list of future articles. The great thing about writing these is that in doing the research you find so many ideas for new articles. Fixed the date too, thank you RT.

19 - 136 - Hitler was not good!

19 - 173 - What is a troy a reference to?

18 - 17 - This explanation is an oft-repeated myth. The bedrock is deeper below the surface in the areas below Canal Street than it is in region from the Flatiron district up to 42nd between. See http://observer.com/2012/01/uncanny-valley-the-real-reason-there-are-no-skyscrapers-in-the-middle-of-manhattan/

18 - 198 - Engaging read! This post brilliantly unpacks the geological foundations of NYC, underpinning its architectural prowess. It's the unseen hero of the city's skyline.

17 - 70 - A very interesting piece of history.

17 - 73 - Glad you enjoyed it!

17 - 74 - Love reading history raise of christianity.

17 - 99 - wow! so interesting. helped so much!

17 - 100 - is this site credible?

17 - 102 - It is as credible as the available source material. I list all references on each article. If you have a different perspective please feel free to email me or leave a comment. Thanks for reading!

17 - 107 - Thanks for this information. This helped me a lot! :D

17 - 108 - Thanks for this information. This helped me a lot! :D

17 - 111 - HI

17 - 115 - Very interesting information. How the living religion, Christianity has spread around the world like this miracle is an open proof that JESUS is living and He changes lives and a help in times of helplessness.

17 - 118 - Constantine was a jerk

17 - 120 - thanks

17 - 139 - Very nice article I am a student and this helped me learn a lot in the 6th grade!

17 - 144 - Very Good!

17 - 142 - Very interesting about his conversion to Christianity

17 - 143 - learning heaps

17 - 146 - Interesting

17 - 147 - Constantine is a very interesting bloke. Thanks to all the chaps at Classic History!

17 - 148 - thanks

17 - 156 - This is a great resource of knowledge for my kindergarteners!!!

17 - 158 - Thanks Ian! I'm happy it has helped!

17 - 159 - I love this cite! very credible 10/10 great resource for some fun reading!

17 - 175 - love it !!!

17 - 185 - i dont like this cause it didnt talk about MLK

17 - 206 - ????????????

17 - 205 - stupid

17 - 202 - You are so fake. There is no god. Shut up, just, shut up!

17 - 207 - Very good

17 - 211 - All thanks to Jesus,for his mercy

17 - 216 - this app is so amazing it js makes me want to slap eian

16 - 16 - Meine Mutter war eine geborene Bach.Besteht Event.eine Verbindung zu Johann Sebastian?Ich wurde es unbedingt wissen wollen .Irgend wo ist mir das ubermittelt worden.Bitte helfen Sie mir.Danke im Voraus-

16 - 222 - poah rein in die futterluke

15 - 182 - I'd like to use the above graphic as a sidebar to an upcoming equinox post at EarthSky. My article informs the reader of the intriguing fact that the tip of a shadow stick (gnomon) follows a straight (west-to-east) path on the day of an equinox. If given permission, I plan to credit the graphic to Classic History and to provide a link to this Eratosthenes page. Thank you for your consideration!

15 - 183 - Bruce, Yes please feel free to use anything you want so long as you reference this website as a source. Here is a slightly larger resolution image. Thanks for reading!

13 - 166 - Please include date of publication as I am trying to cite this article for school

12 - 10 - I was intrigued by Origin of Romanticism, how it changed its meaning over in a short span of time. From its lovers escapade into beautiful spots of nature to non- tangent expression of emotion and dramatism. thank you very much for this insight. grateful - sheera Betnag

12 - 69 - And wonder how it might change in the future as well. Glad you enjoyed the article and thank you for reading Sheera.

12 - 150 - This post was truly worthwhile to read. I wanted to say thank you for the key points you have pointed out as they are enlightening.

12 - 208 - As a Chinese, I've got the origin of romance! Thank u a lot.

9 - 0 - test'

5 - 151 - how should i reference this website?

5 - 153 - You could use Source: www.ClassicHistory.net Author: Thomas Acreman

4 - 7 - Keep on writing, great job!

4 - 8 - Congratulations. Agrees with the Welsh versions I was taught at school in the 1930s and 40s and what I read and gathered afterwards. I am now interested in finding out how much effect would 350 year of Roman rule have had on the Britons and why was it that the Romano Britons were so complacent and lax to be overtaken by the pagan immigrant settlers from Saxony in c400B.C.

4 - 9 - Thanks so much! I plan to keep on writing for years. My goal is to write at least one article per month.

4 - 78 - Thanks Gordon. I should have read my own title, where it was named Britain.

4 - 77 - "The island nation currently known as England?!" That's funny; I live here, and we call it Great Britain.

4 - 131 - Misspellings: "every forrest and hillside" (forest) "the furry of battle" (fury) "He employed them all to weather their captivity with bravery and courage, and to be strong men and women" (implored? impelled?) "an ivory thrown" (throne)

4 - 132 - Thanks JD. This is one of the first articles I wrote for this website and I really need to rewrite it.

4 - 167 - This story does, at least, acknowledge that the tale of Julius Caesar conquering Britain is not true! JC was ejected more than once. It was Cartimandua who betrayed Caradoc.. in the time of Claudius. BTW… No celts in Britain which was named for Brutus, grandson of Anaeas of Troy. Anaeas also features in the story of the founding of Rome. I.e., the peoples were related. The Cymry were not ‘primitive’!

3 - 1 - I love visiting the cross but, there's one thing that drives me nuts. Vietnam was not a war it was an armed conflict, not one of the 5 presidents that were in office during this time [1945 to 1972] did NOT declare war on the Viet Cong nor on North Vietnam.

3 - 3 - Are small weddings allowed Infront of the cross ?

3 - 4 - What camera was used here?

3 - 2 - Indeed, but the purpose of the cross is to remember those who answered their call to service and how much better the world is for their sacrifice. To that goal I think the cross does a fine job.

3 - 5 - I am not affiliated with Sewanee in any way but yes, I have seen a wedding there. It looked very peaceful and beautiful. There is a link to their website on this page which would be a good place to look for a contact number for the University.

3 - 6 - I believe I just used an old iPhone 4s for both of these photos.

3 - 109 - Why are those who severed in the Civil War not memorialized as well?

3 - 110 - Because the cross was originally built to memorialize those who served and died in World War I. Plaques were only added for those who served in wars after WWI. It was ultimately decided that the cross would only serve as a memorial for those who served and died in wars during the 20th century. From The University of the South: "Sewanee’s Memorial Cross honors the students and alumni of the University of the South and the Sewanee Military Academy and the citizens of Franklin County who fought and those who lost their lives in service to their country in the wars of the last century."

3 - 161 - Can someone in a wheelchair be able to get to the cross fairly easy?

3 - 162 - Yes, parking is available at the cross and the walkway to the cross is only slightly uphill.

2 - 0 - Nice article. The lake actually rarely freezes and only enough to walk on less than once every 10 years and only for a few days. In 2006 it was 29 days but otherwise it is clear and the ferries run year round.

-1 - 66 - Thanks for sharing your thoughts on History. Regards

-1 - 67 - I enjoyed your article on Charles Martel. Thank you for maintaining this beautiful site!

-1 - 68 - Thank you! I enjoyed researching and writing that one too. Thanks for reading and Merry Christmas.

-1 - 193 - Thanks very much for this mentally engaging, attention-grabbing articles. This content is right up mu intellectual alley, and I'll be a regular frequenter.

-100024 - 106 - test comment!! ©

James Cook - His First Voyage Comments:

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Friday, July 12, 2024

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First encounter with Antarctic ice, January 1773, detail of engraving after painting by William Hodges, in A Voyage towards the South Pole and Round the World , by James Cook, 4th ed., 1784 (Linda Hall Library)

On July 11, 1772, Captain James Cook sailed from Plymouth on his second voyage around the world.  He had been back in England only 14 months since ...

Scientist of the Day - James Cook

On July 11, 1772, Captain James Cook sailed from Plymouth on his second voyage around the world.  He had been back in England only 14 months since returning from the initial voyage of 1768-71, which was successful beyond anyone's expectations, in discovering new lands and peoples, observing the transit of Venus of 1769 in Tahiti, and collecting specimens, descriptions, and illustrations of thousands of new plants and animals.  Cook was aided in this last enterprise by a team headed up by the naturalist Joseph Banks . We told the story of the first voyage in our first post on Cook and in posts on Banks; Sydney Parkinson , an artist who died on the voyage; and Daniel Solander , a Swedish naturalist employed by Banks.

Portrait of James Cook, oil on canvas, by John Webb, 1776, National Portrait Gallery, London (npg.org.uk)

The single ship of the first voyage, HMS Endeavor , had been built in the shipyards of Whitby in north Yorkshire, and it had done its job well, but it had lived a full life in those 3 years, and for his second voyage, Cook was provided with two more Whitby-built vessels, the Resolution , which he commanded, and the Adventure , commanded by Thomas Furneaux.  Cook's primary mission, as detailed by the Admiralty (with further guidelines provided by the Royal Society of London) was to search for a southern continent, and to explore New Zealand and other island groups of the vast Pacific Ocean.

Map of Captain Cook’s three voyages, with the second voyage, 1772-75, in green (marinersmuseum.org)

The ships were stocked with all sorts of anti-scorbutics (foods to ward off scurvy), including sauerkraut, malt, carrot jam, and beer concentrate – some were known anti-scorbutics, some were to be tested out.  Cook's first voyage had been relatively scurvy-free, and he wanted to keep it that way on the second trip.  The Resolution also carried one of the new chronometers of John Harrison , which allowed navigators to determine longitude, even in the middle of the Pacific.  It worked as advertised, and K1 survives today in the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich ( fourth image ).  In addition, Cook had an able artist, William Hodges, and two naturalists, Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Johann Georg.  It had been intended that Banks would be the naturalist for the second voyage, but he resigned in a huff when his on-deck space had to be cut down in size. The Forsters performed well in his stead ( fifth image ).

The chronometer K1, a copy of John Harrison’s H4 chronometer, made for James Cook’s second voyage and used to determine longitude, now in the National Maritime Museum, Royal Museums, Greenwich (rmg.co.uk)

The ships stopped first in Cape Town to replenish with fresh food and water, and then sailed directly south to tackle their primary mission – search for and hopefully discover a southern continent.  They failed to sight Antarctica, but they did cross the Antarctic Circle on Jan 17, 1773, the first ship to do so, and saw lots of penguins and ice floes, but no land ( see map, third image ).  The icy fog grew so thick that the two ships lost touch with each other and would not be reunited until they met again in New Zealand, which the Resolution reached in March.  The Adventure was waiting for them in Queen Charlotte's Bay up north, but Cook took his time exploring the southern island and didn't reunite with Furneaux's ship until late May.

Johann Reinhold and Johann Georg Forster, father-and-son naturalists on Cook’s second voyage, oil on canvas by JeanFrancois Rigaud, National Portrait Gallery of Australia (portrait.gov.au)

The ships then left to explore the Pacific, re-visiting Tahiti, and encountering, for the first time, the Society Islands and the Friendly Islands, collecting specimens all the way (including taking on board a native from Huahine named Omai, who would make it back to England and become quite an ambassador for Pacific Islanders).  By October of 1773, they made it back to New Zealand's North Island.  The two ships were again separated during a storm, and a landing party from the Adventure was attacked and slaughtered by natives – ten men were butchered – which so unnerved Furneaux that he immediately headed back to Cape Town and then home, a year ahead of Cook.  Cook was unaware of this, and in the Antarctic summer of January 1774, he made one more attempt at discovering Antarctica, this time making it to 71° 11' south, a record for “furthest south” that would stand until the 1840s ( see map, third image ).  But the ice floes were too thick to go further, and he returned to warmer climes, discovering, among other things, Easter Island, which had not been visited by Englishmen. Nearly every picturesque place they visited was painted by Hodges, and you can see his painting of Easter Island as the initial image in our post on Hodges .

Native canoes in Resolution Bay in the Marquesas, engraving after painting by William Hodges, in A Voyage towards the South Pole and Round the World , by James Cook, 4th ed., 1784 (Linda Hall Library)

HMS Resolution returned to Spithead in England on July 20, 1775, after a circum-navigating voyage of just over 3 years.  Even though Cook did not discover Antarctica, the voyage was an unqualified success, and with the specimens collected by the Forsters, and their drawings, it was a scientific success as well. Cook’s first voyage had been written up by John Hawkesworth , but that publication was a disaster, so Cook was in charge of the narrative for the second voyage, published in 1777, with engravings after the drawings and paintings of Hodges and the two Forsters.  We have only the fourth edition in our library, but the engravings are the same ones as in the first edition.  You can see two of the engravings here, and four more, including Hodges’ portrait of Cook, in our post on Hodges .

Cook would set out on his third voyage, another circumnavigation, just a year later, in July of 1776, a voyage from which he would not return.  We will tell that story in one last post on James Cook, at some future date.

William B. Ashworth, Jr., Consultant for the History of Science, Linda Hall Library and Associate Professor emeritus, Department of History, University of Missouri-Kansas City. Comments or corrections are welcome; please direct to  [email protected] .

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Monday - Friday 10 AM - 5 PM

Have Fun With History

10 James Cook Accomplishments and Achievements

James Cook was a renowned British explorer and navigator who lived from 1728 to 1779. He made significant contributions to geographical discovery and scientific exploration during the 18th century.

Cook is best known for his voyages that led to the mapping and exploration of the east coast of Australia, the discovery and mapping of New Zealand, and extensive exploration of the Pacific Ocean.

His meticulous documentation, accurate mapping, and scientific observations greatly expanded European knowledge of the Pacific region, including its islands, cultures, and natural phenomena.

Cook’s legacy extends beyond exploration, as he introduced preventative measures against scurvy and his voyages laid the foundation for advancements in navigation and scientific exploration. James Cook remains an influential figure in the history of exploration and a symbol of discovery and adventure.

Accomplishments of James Cook

1. charting the east coast of australia.

James Cook’s first voyage, which took place from 1768 to 1771, was primarily focused on observing the transit of Venus across the sun. However, Cook was also tasked with exploring and charting the largely unknown eastern coastline of the continent we now know as Australia.

Also Read: Facts About James Cook

Cook and his crew meticulously surveyed the coast, producing detailed maps and charts of the region. His exploration led to the discovery and naming of many prominent landmarks, including Botany Bay, where the first European settlement in Australia was later established.

Cook’s thorough mapping of the east coast provided invaluable information for future explorers and ultimately paved the way for the British colonization of Australia.

2. Discovering and mapping New Zealand

During his first voyage, Cook became the first European to accurately map the entire coastline of New Zealand. His ship, the HMS Endeavour, arrived in New Zealand in October 1769, and Cook spent several months circumnavigating both the North and South Islands.

He meticulously surveyed and charted the coastline, producing highly accurate maps that improved European understanding of the islands’ geography. Cook’s encounters with the indigenous Māori people were recorded in his journals and provided important insights into their customs and way of life.

Cook’s exploration of New Zealand remains significant to this day, and his maps formed the foundation for subsequent European settlement and navigation in the region.

3. Exploring the Pacific Ocean and mapping numerous islands

James Cook’s voyages took him across vast stretches of the Pacific Ocean, during which he explored and mapped numerous islands and archipelagos. His first voyage, as mentioned earlier, involved sailing through the Pacific to reach New Zealand and Australia.

Cook’s second voyage, from 1772 to 1775, focused on further exploration of the Pacific. He discovered and charted the Society Islands (including Tahiti), the Marquesas Islands, Tonga, and the Cook Islands, among others. His meticulous mapping and descriptions of these islands greatly expanded European knowledge of the Pacific region.

Cook’s third voyage, from 1776 to 1780, aimed to locate a rumored southern continent, but he instead crossed the Antarctic Circle and made significant progress in mapping the Southern Ocean. His exploration of the Pacific Ocean opened up new horizons and contributed to a deeper understanding of the world’s geography.

4. Accurate measurement of longitude at sea

One of the most significant contributions of James Cook’s voyages was his work on accurately measuring longitude at sea. Determining longitude was a pressing problem for navigators at the time, as it was crucial for accurate navigation and avoiding hazards.

Cook employed the use of newly developed marine chronometers, particularly the timepiece created by John Harrison, known as the H4 chronometer. These chronometers provided a reliable means of measuring time at sea, enabling sailors to determine their longitude by comparing local time with the time at a known reference point.

Cook’s meticulous implementation of these chronometers and his emphasis on precise timekeeping greatly improved navigation accuracy and facilitated safer and more efficient long-distance voyages.

5. Crossing the Antarctic Circle three times

During his second voyage (1772-1775), James Cook ventured farther south than any previous explorer at the time. He crossed the Antarctic Circle three times, making significant progress in exploring the Southern Ocean and pushing the boundaries of Antarctic exploration.

Although Cook did not directly encounter the Antarctic continent itself, his voyages expanded knowledge of the icy conditions and introduced European explorers to the harsh environment of the southern polar region.

Cook’s courage and determination in exploring these extreme latitudes paved the way for future Antarctic expeditions and contributed to our understanding of the Earth’s geography.

6. Discovering the Great Barrier Reef

In 1770, during his first voyage, James Cook’s ship, the HMS Endeavour, ran aground on the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of present-day Queensland, Australia. This event led to the discovery of the world’s largest coral reef system, stretching over 2,300 kilometers (1,400 miles).

Despite the challenges and damage to the ship, Cook and his crew spent several weeks repairing the vessel while also taking the opportunity to study and document the unique marine life and ecosystems of the reef.

Cook’s observations and meticulous charts of the Great Barrier Reef significantly expanded European knowledge of coral reefs and their ecological importance.

Today, the Great Barrier Reef remains a UNESCO World Heritage site and stands as one of the world’s most extraordinary natural wonders, thanks in part to Cook’s accidental discovery.

7. Documenting Pacific cultures and peoples

Throughout his voyages, James Cook and his crew had extensive interactions with the indigenous peoples of the Pacific islands they encountered. Cook had a keen interest in understanding the social, cultural, and linguistic aspects of the Pacific cultures.

He and his crew made detailed observations, recorded their encounters, and documented various aspects of the local customs, traditions, and languages. Cook’s journals and the accounts of his crew provide invaluable ethnographic records of Pacific islanders during the 18th century.

These records have been of great historical and anthropological importance, offering insights into the diverse cultures and societies of the Pacific that might otherwise have been lost to history.

8. Voyage to the Antarctic and venturing farther south than any previous explorer

During his third and final voyage (1776-1780), James Cook set sail with the objective of locating a southern continent, often referred to as “Terra Australis.”

Although he did not discover the fabled continent, Cook made significant progress in exploring the Southern Ocean and became the first recorded person to cross the Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere. His ships penetrated further south than any previous expedition, reaching approximately 71°10’S latitude.

Cook’s voyage to the Antarctic, although focused on geographical exploration, also added to scientific knowledge about the extreme environment of the polar region and the challenges of navigating icy waters.

9. Introduction of preventative measures against scurvy

Scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency, plagued sailors on long voyages during Cook’s era. Recognizing the importance of maintaining the health of his crew, Cook implemented strict measures to combat scurvy during his voyages.

He emphasized cleanliness, proper ventilation, and the provisioning of a balanced diet that included fresh foods rich in vitamin C, such as citrus fruits and sauerkraut. These measures significantly reduced the incidence of scurvy among Cook’s crew compared to other contemporary naval expeditions.

Cook’s emphasis on maintaining crew health and his success in preventing scurvy contributed to improved conditions and increased survival rates on long sea voyages, leading to advancements in naval and maritime exploration.

10. Legacy of scientific exploration and expanding knowledge in various fields

James Cook’s voyages had a lasting impact on scientific exploration and knowledge across various fields. Cook and his crew conducted extensive botanical studies, collecting and documenting numerous plant specimens from the Pacific islands they visited.

These botanical collections contributed to advancements in the study of plant taxonomy and provided a wealth of information about previously unknown species. Cook also made significant contributions to geology, mapping coastlines and recording geological formations.

Additionally, his observations of celestial bodies, such as the transit of Venus, and his meticulous navigation techniques improved the accuracy of astronomical and navigational calculations.

Cook’s commitment to scientific inquiry and his comprehensive documentation of natural phenomena paved the way for further scientific exploration and greatly expanded knowledge in the fields of botany, geology, astronomy, and ethnography. His legacy continues to inspire and inform scientific endeavors to this day.

MS Book Festival 2024: Jesmyn Ward, LeVar Burton highlight event. See who's coming and when

The 10th annual Mississippi Book Festival promises an impressive lineup of author speakers and panelists.

In its decade-long history, the festival has brought hundreds of literary and political figures to Jackson with recent lineups including former Vice President Mike Pence and Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayer.

The festival announced the first list of guest panelists in March , and the roster has been growing since.

This year's festival will take place on Sept. 14 in the Mississippi State Capitol Building and the Galloway United Methodist Church. The festival is a free event open to the public.

More summer events: Activities and events to add to your Jackson summer bucket list. See dates and times here

Who's coming?

Here is the current list of authors and their recent books set to speak at the 2024 Mississippi Book Festival, separated by genre.

Art and design:

• Kate Medley, "Thank You Please Come Again: How Gas Stations Feed and Fuel the American South — A Photographic Road Trip"
• Noah Saterstrom, "What Became of Dr. Smith"
• Ben Wynne, "A Hound Dog Tale: Big Mama, Elvis, and the Song That Changed Everything"

Children's books:

• Sarah-SoonLing Blackburn, "Exclusion and the Chinese Story"
• Kate DiCamillo, "Ferris"
• Mary Annaïse Heglar, "The World Is Ours to Cherish: A Letter to a Child"
• Heather C. Morris, "Trunk Goes Thunk! A Woodland Tale of Opposites"
• Helena Ku Rhee, "Sora's Seashells"
• Kim Rogers, "Just Like Grandma"
• Taryn Souders, "The Mystery of Radcliffe Riddle"
• Angie Thomas, "Nic Blake and The Remarkables: The Manifestor Prophecy"
• Allen R. Wells, "Dante Plays His Blues"
• Anne Wynter, "Nell Plants a Tree"
• Nana Kwame Adjei-Brenyah, "Chain Gang All Stars"
• Kaveh Akbar, "Martyr!"
• Allison Alsup, "Foreign Seed"
• Katya Apekina, "Mother Doll"
• Jeff Barry, "Go to Hell Ole Miss"
• Chris Bohjalian, "The Princess of Las Vegas"
• Lee Boudreaux, editor of novels including "Lessons in Chemistry" and "The Most Fun We Ever Had"
• Gabi Burton, "Drown Me with Dreams: Hearts break. Kingdoms shatter."
• Eli Cranor, "Broiler"
• Elizabeth Crook, "The Madstone"
• Leif Enger, "I Cheerfully Refuse"
• Tom Franklin, "Crooked Letter, Crooked Letter"
• Alina Grabowski, "Women and Children First"
• Juliet Grames, "The Lost Boy of Santa Chionia"
• Minrose Gwin, "Beautiful Dreamers"
• Shaun Hamill, "The Dissonance"
• Mary Annaïse Heglar, "Troubled Waters"
• Jenny Jackson, "Pineapple Street"
• Joseph Kanon, "Shanghai"
• Rachel Khong, "Real Americans"
• Claire Lombardo, "Same As It Ever Was"
• Rachel Lyon, "Fruit of the Dead"
• Jenn Lyons, "The Sky on Fire"
• Lee Mandelo, "The Woods All Black"
• Mesha Maren, "Shae"
• Alane Salierno Mason, editor and vice president of W.W. Norton and Company
• Melissa Mogollon, "Oye"
• Julia Phillips, "Bear"
• Jamie Quatro, "Two-Step Devil"
• Ron Rash, "The Caretaker"
• Maurice Carlos Ruffin, "The American Daughters"
• O. O. Sangoyomi, "Masquerade: Her Rise to Fortune, Paid in Blood"
• Ery Shin, "Spring on the Peninsula"
• J. Courtney Sullivan, "The Cliffs"
• Sheila Sundar, "Habitations"
• Joseph Earl Thomas, "God Bless You, Otis Spunkmeyer"
• Natasha Trethewey, "The House of Being (Why I Write)"
• M.O. Walsh, "The Big Door Prize"
• Jesmyn Ward, "Let Us Descend"
• Randy Wayne White, "One Deadly Eye: A Doc Ford Novel"
• Phillip B. Williams, "OURS"
• Gerry Wilson, "That Pinson Girl"
• Henry Wise, "Holy City"
• Snowden Wright, "The Queen City Detective Agency"
• Steve Yarbrough, "Stay Gone Days"
• Nicola Yoon, "One of Our Kind"
• Anne Byrn, "Baking in the American South"
• Margo Cooper, "Deep Inside the Blues: Photographs and Interviews"
• John T. Edge, "The Potlikker Papers: A Food History of the Modern South"
• John Caleb Grenn, literary reviewer
• Cree Myles, "All Ways Black"
• Aimee Nezhukumatathil, "Bite by Bite: Nourishments and Jamborees"
• Robert St. John, "Robert St. John's Mississippi Mornings: Deep South Breakfasts, Brunches, and Musings"
• Anthony Thaxton, "Eudora"
• Traci Thomas, host of the podcast "The Stacks"
• Crystal Wilkinson, "Praisesong for the Kitchen Ghosts: Stories and Recipes from Five Generations of Black Country Cooks"
• Diane Williams, "A Guide to Mississippi Museums"
• Jerid P. Woods, also known as Akili Nzuri, author of the blog "A Black Man Reading"

Nonfiction:

• Jami Attenberg, "1000 Words"
• KB Brookins, "Pretty: A Memoir"
• Jonathan Corcoran, "No Son of Mine: A Memoir"
• Eric Jay Dolin, "Left for Dead: Shipwreck, Treachery, and Survival at the Edge of the World"
• Todd Doughty, "Little Pieces of Hope: Happy-Making Things in a Difficult World"
• Jeff Duncan, "A Life Impossible: Living with ALS: Finding Peace and Wisdom Within a Fragile Existence"
• W. Ralph Eubanks, "A Place Like Mississippi: A Journey Through a Real and Imagined Literary Landscape"
• Ellen Ann Fentress, "The Steps We Take: A Memoir of Southern Reckoning"
• Dionne Ford, "Go Back and Get it: A Memoir of Race, Inheritance, and Intergenerational Healing"
• X. M. Frascogna Jr., "The Saints of St. Mary's"
• Marion Garrard Barnwell, "All the Things We Didn't Say: Two Memoirs"
• Richard Grant, "A Race to the Bottom of Crazy: Dispatches from Arizona"
• Grace Elizabeth Hale, "In the Pines: A Lynching, A Lie, A Reckoning"
• Paul Hendrickson, "Fighting the Night: Iwo Jima, World War II, and a Flyer's Life."
• J. L. Holloway, "Nothing to Lose: A Story of Poverty, Resilience, and Gratitude"
• Jasmine L. Holmes, "Yonder Come Day: Exploring the Collective Witness of the Formerly Enslaved"
• Sebastian Junger, "In My Time of Dying: How I Came Face to Face With the Idea of an Afterlife"
• Erik Larson, "The Demon of Unrest: A Saga of Hubris, Heartbreak, and Heroism at the Dawn of the Civil War"
• Beverly Lowry, "Deer Creek Drive: A Reckoning of Memory and Murder in the Mississippi Delta"
• Priyanka Mattoo, "Bird Milk and Mosquito Bones"
• Tracie McMillan, "The White Bonus: Five Families and the Cash Value of Racism"
• Margaret McMullan, "Where the Angels Lived: One Family's Story of Exile, Loss and Return"
• Di Rushing, "The Delta in the Rearview Mirror: The Life and Death of Mississippi's First Winery"
• Wesley Shoop, "Mississippi's Natural Heritage of Mississippi: Photographs of Flora and Fauna"
• Hampton Sides, "The Wide Wide Sea: Imperial Ambition, First Contact and the Fateful Final Voyage of Captain James Cook"
• Buz Teacher, Running Press Book Publishers
• Boyce Upholt, "The Great River: The Making and Unmaking of the Mississippi"
• Kidada E. Williams, "I Saw Death Coming: A History of Terror and Survival in the War Against Reconstruction"
• A. H. Jerriod Avant, "Muscadine"
• Adam Clay, "Circle Back"
• Beth Ann Fennelly, "Heating and Cooling: 52 Micro-Memoirs"
• Major Jackson, "Razzle Dazzle: New and Selected Poems 2002-2022"
• January Gill O'Neal, "Glitter Road"
• Catherine Pierce, "Danger Days"
• Leona Sevick, "The Bamboo Wife"
• Hannah V Warren, "Slaughterhouse for Old Wives' Tales"

A full list of descriptions of the authors and books above is available on the Mississippi Book Festival website .

What are the panels?

The festival has yet to release details on the panels happening Sept. 14. However, moderators have been announced. The latest addition is LeVar Burton, best known for the shows "Reading Rainbow" and "Star Trek: Next Generation" who will discuss with Mississippi author Ward, a two-time winner of the National Book Award.

Here are all the moderators the festival has announced:

• Levar Burton
• C. Leigh McInnis
• Scott Naugle
• Nina Parikh
• Lauren Rhoades

Miraculous: A second set of quintuplets is born in Mississippi in less than two years. What are the odds?

Got a news tip? Contact Mary Boyte at [email protected]

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