brazilian annals of tourism studies

Anthropology of food

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Eating identities and places

This work presents a systematic review of contemporary Brazilian tourism studies concerning gastronomy. To do this, we analyse articles from authors related to Brazilian institutions that published in tourism studies journals, in the period from 2007 to 2016. In addition, we conducted a brief analysis of the contents of the articles and investigated the academic trajectories of the authors through additional publications, outlining the emergence of a new scientific subfield. The results show that Brazilian tourism studies on gastronomy are recent but growing rapidly and that, because of its multidisciplinary object, demands a balance between the contributions of the several fields that compose it. In this sense we detected that, although almost a third of the articles have properly approached the cultural and social aspects of gastronomy in relation to tourism, more than a third dealt with ethnicity in an essentialist way and less than ten per cent took a critical attitude towards these aspects. Finally, the data point out that this is due to lack of influence from social sciences, especially from anthropology.

Dans cet article, nous présentons une revue systématique des études touristiques brésiliennes contemporaines sur la gastronomie. Pour ce faire, nous avons choisi d’analyser les articles d’auteurs liés aux institutions brésiliennes publiées dans des revues de recherche touristique entre 2007 et 2016. De plus, nous avons effectué une brève analyse du contenu des articles et étudié les trajectoires académiques des auteurs avec plus de publications, en soulignant l’émergence d’un nouveau sous-champ scientifique. En ce sens, nous avons détecté que, même si près d’un tiers des articles ont approché les aspects culturels et sociaux des relations entre la gastronomie et le tourisme de manière appropriée, plus d’un tiers traitait de l’ethnicité de manière essentialiste et moins de dix pour cent a pris une position critique sur ces aspects. Les résultats montrent que les études touristiques du Brésil sur la gastronomie sont récentes mais en croissance rapide, et en raison de son objet multidisciplinaire, ceux-ci exigent un certain équilibre entre les contributions des champs qui les composent. Enfin, les données soulignent que cela est dû au manque d’influence des sciences sociales, en particulier de l’anthropologie.

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1 This work presents a systematic review of Brazilian tourism studies concerning gastronomy. Since the 1950s, as it appeared, this subfield has drawn little attention, even in countries such as England, France, Italy, Portugal and Spain, and only brought us close to a consideration of this issue in the nineties. In Brazil, tourism studies are recent and the topic of gastronomy gained more attention in the beginning of the 2000s. Our review covers a period of ten years, starting in 2007 (before that, tourism studies were scarce in Brazil) and encompassing the articles published until the end of 2016. We are witnessing the emergence of an area of great scientific and market interest. Gastronomy activities represent half of Brazilian tourism revenues. Furthermore, it mobilizes identities and power relations, locally, regionally, and globally.

• 1 Considering only journals that are specialized in tourism studies, we abandon the dependence on a s (...)

2 Brazilian tourism studies on gastronomy are not a concern of a particular area of knowledge and the task is to construct a dialogue with several other areas. Nonetheless, our review brings to light a notable lack of contribution from the fields of anthropology and of sociology. We believe that this neglect is the main cause of a recurrent theoretical fragility regarding the cultural dimension of gastronomy in tourism relations. To verify this hypothesis, we will analyse research articles published on tourism studies journals (and only those that allow unrestricted open access to its content). 1

3 Our review aims at exploring the prevailing characteristics of this scientific subfield in Brazil. In addition to this first step, we introduce a short content analysis of the articles, pointing out the central themes, methods and theoretical-discursive perspectives of these. On the one hand, this will allow us to understand theoretical consequences of this neglect; on the other hand, it will help us elucidate the reasons that lead to the late interest of Brazilian academic researchers with the subfield of national tourism studies on gastronomy.

4 Another attempt is to understand the influence of other scientific fields in this subfield, and to elaborate such point we will analyse the academic trajectory of the articles’ authors.

5 We use the term “field” having Bourdieu’s (1975) definition of “scientific field” in mind. As any other field, it is subject to the social conditions of production. Scientists establish power relations internally and ascribe specific “symbolic capital” to each area or subarea. This “distinctive value” calls for authority, “by arrogating to themselves the monopoly of certain practices or of reflexion on those practices” (p. 35). This ultimately ensures a conversion of “scientific capital” into “economic capital”.

6 This approach will be to use the articles to address some of the distinctions of tourism studies researchers, but also at defining the tourism studies on gastronomy as a scientific subfield in contemporary Brazil.

• 2 In Brazil, a scoring system known as “Qualis Periódicos” evaluates the scientific journals in which (...)
• 3 In Brazil, we have only 11 graduate programs in tourism studies (4 master’s programs, 3 professiona (...)

7 Our research points out that Brazilian tourism studies on gastronomy are very recent and rapidly growing. Due its interdisciplinary character, it demands contributions from several areas of knowledge. Nevertheless, we have detected a lack of contribution from social sciences, especially from anthropology. This is partially due to the system of evaluation of Brazilian scientific production 2 and the inclusion of tourism studies in a field dominated by business and management studies. The underestimation and, in some cases, the invisibility of journals on tourism studies, as well as of the scientists working on this field, contribute to this lack of interest. This condition not only repels contributions from crucial fields for tourism studies such as anthropology, economy, geography, history and sociology, but also kept tourist scholars in a very restrict peer-competition, cornered among thousands of business and management researchers. 3

• 4 We provide an ‘overview’ because we do not intend to write a dense literature review, since we are (...)

8 After describing of our review, we will provide a short content analysis and an overview 4 of the main themes, the meta-theoretical choices, and the methods employed in the analysed articles. Despite having found empirical and pragmatic works, the result of our analysis indicates a theoretical fragility in Brazilian tourism studies regarding consumption, food, and ethnicity in tourism social relations. Many of the works analysed attempts to undertake a cultural analysis of identities exploring ethnical or local food in a superficial way, treating globalization and cultural changes as socially corrosive and as acculturation processes. We believe that this perspective is a consequence of the mentioned lack of contribution from social scientists to tourism studies.

9 At the second part of the text, we discuss some critical aspects of the relationship between tourism and gastronomy in Brazil and try to develop a critical perspective upon this debate.

10 We develop this article in two parts:

11 At first, we introduce a systematic review of the Brazilian scientific production regarding gastronomy in the field of tourism studies;

12 Subsequently, we present an additional and short content analysis. Then, we develop a critical perspective upon the debate, trying to understand the key features of this field in Brazil.

• 5 Evaluation criteria available for consultation at : [http://capes.gov.br/avaliacao/sobre-as-areas-de (...)

13 After this introductory presentation, we can now develop how we worked on the criteria for selection of journals and articles that are part of this analysis. We selected articles published from January 2007 to December 2016 in tourism studies journals evaluated by CAPES ( Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior [Higher Education Personnel Improvement Coordination]) and with at least one author linked to a Brazilian institution (the data used refer to the evaluation carried out in 2016). CAPES evaluates scientific journals according to its own system of classification, called Qualis Periódicos 5 (A1 is the higher, then A2, and thereafter B1; B2; B3; B4; B5; C, zero weight).

14 Among other criteria, Qualis Periódicos uses international recognized measures, such as the “impact factor” provided by the Web of Science, known as JCR (Journal Citation Reports), which is probably the most widely used criterion in the Western scientific community. It also uses criteria of international citation and index bases such as Scopus (H-Scopus), Redalyc and Scielo. In addition, CAPES recommends some general criteria such as minimum periodicity and at least three years of existence; establishes punishment for delays and percentage quotas for each classification stratum (stimulating competition between journals to occupy the higher strata); and scores the journals according to its scopes (giving high grades to multidisciplinary journals). CAPES also allows each Area of Evaluation to elaborate its own additional criteria.

• 6 Except for the journals linked to strictu sensu graduate programs recognized by CAPES. Exception th (...)
• 7 One can access Plataforma Sucupira at the following address: [https://sucupira.capes.gov.br/sucupir (...)

15 In this study, we selected only journals rated between A1 and B3 6 (found at the Plataforma Sucupira ). 7 Our criteria of selection encompass approximately 60% of the tourism studies journals in which researchers affiliated to Brazilian institutions have published. The journals classified in these strata are the most relevant, circulating at national and international level. We only considered journals that were active in 2016 – since recent publications provides the most relevant data – with unrestricted open access to its content. We have not considered books; congresses annals or journals based in congresses annals, since considering these would require another type of research. Moreover, there are no available ranking lists of books and congress papers published by the researchers affiliated to Brazilian institutions.

• 8 According to CAPES (2017), which is linked to the Brazilian Ministry of Education (MEC), the Colleg (...)

16 Following these criteria and relying ourselves on the assessment of scientific committees (and its Areas of Evaluation) from the college of Humanities, 8 we found twenty-four (24) scientific journals. Eight disciplinary committees and one interdisciplinary committee have evaluated these journals, as one can see in Annex 2.

17 We visited the official websites of those journals and consulted the publications from 2007 to 2016. We selected the articles according to:

18 -publications with at least one author linked to a Brazilian research institutions;

19 -research articles (excluding reviews of books, reports of events, etc.).

• 9 Regarding this methodological choice, we must do two considerations: (1) more possibilities would m (...)

20 -regarding the search terms, only that articles containing in keywords AND title OR abstract any of the following words and radical branches: eat*, cuisine, culinary, food, gastro*, restaurant* and tour* 9 .

• 10 Registration in Currículo Lattes , which is the curriculum system of CNPq, is mandatory for any scho (...)

21 -only the articles in which authors adopted perspectives from Humanities (mainly to exclude the biological studies of touristic food contamination). We found 78 articles in total, as one could see in Annex 3. We also mapped data regarding the academic education of the authors of these articles. We took these data from the official platform known as Lattes 10 , the curriculum system of the CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico [National Council for Scientific and Technological Development]). Therefore, we used these data to understand the influence of scientific fields upon the methods and theoretical orientation of Brazilian tourism studies regarding gastronomy.

22 We sustain that both the field of tourism studies and its subfield devoted to gastronomy are under dispute and seeking recognition in different areas of humanities, articulating their own methods and theories, and looking forward to create their own approaches. We also claim that this subfield is belatedly responding to questions raised by the phenomenon of globalization. There is a clear difficulty concerning the treatment of themes such as consumption, ethnicity, and food heritage, and we believe that the lack of contribution from social sciences (especially from anthropology) is the cause of these uncovers issues.

Brazilian tourism studies on gastronomy: a systematic review (2007-2016)

23 In Brazil, gastronomy services have acquired a great importance in the industry of tourism, drawing market’s attention. The service sector accounts for a substantial part of the revenues from the tourism economy, achieving in 2009 “the greatest participation in Tourism-related Activities: 41.9%, which totalizes an amount of R$ 89.5 billion” (IBGE 2012: 21). (Authors translation)

24 Following the statistical indicators and experiencing these data in practical reality, tourism researchers in Brazil turned their attention to gastronomy. As a result, it is possible to observe a boost in the scientific production about the theme in the last 10 years, as one can see in Graph 1.

Graphic 1: Total of articles published per year in the period from 2007 to 2016.

Credit: the authors.

25 We analysed 24 journals and only in 15, we found articles on gastronomy. Rosa do Ventos, a journal linked to UCS ( Universidade de Caxias do Sul [University of South Caxias]) and Turismo e Sociedade, which is associated to UFPR ( Universidade Federal do Paraná [Federal University of Paraná), ranked above average. We found respectively 16 articles (21%) and 12 articles (15%) in each of these journals, as one can see in Annex 2.

26 Among those 24 journals, we found 14 exclusively connected to Brazilian institutions, 4 to Spanish institutions, 2 to Argentinian, 1 to a North-American, 1 to a French, 1 to an Italian, and 1 to a Portuguese institution; and 3 journals linked to two institutions (one results from a partnership between Brazil and Spain, other between Cuba and Spain, and the other between Portugal and Spain). Among the 78 articles, 70 are available in Portuguese, 7 in Spanish, and only 1 in English, which indicates a timid internationalization of this production.

• 11 The first special thematic issue, entitled Tourism and Gastronomy, was published in 2012, and compr (...)
• 12 The special thematic issue on Wine tourism, organized by Miguel Bahl and Vander Valduga, in 2014, t (...)

27 It is important to notice that Rosa dos Ventos 11 and Turismo e Sociedade published special issues on tourism and gastronomy. Rosa dos Ventos published one in 2012 and the other in 2013, and Turismo e Sociedade published one in 2014. 12 We noticed that these special issues have probably concentrated the publications of the subfield in the period from 2012 to 2014, decreasing the number of articles published in other journals considered in the analysis. We can observe this impact in Graphic 2, which shows the amount of articles found in each of the five journals that achieved the best marks between 2007 and 2016 and had more regularity during the period between 2012 and 2016.

Graphic 2: History of publications on the theme in journals that published at least 1 article per year from 2012 to 2016.

28 Regardless of those thematic special issues, one can observe that in 2012, there was a growth superior to 100% in production, establishing an average of a little more than 12 articles per year between 2012 and 2016. This average was significantly inferior in the five previous years (2007-2011), reaching only 3 articles per year. We believe that this contrast is a result of the development of an emerging subfield.

29 By analysing the Graphic 2, one can notice that these 5 journals published together an average of 8 articles on gastronomy per year in the last half of the analysed period (2012-2016). These journals published more than 60% of the total annual in the area. One can also notice a higher average in the years in which Rosa dos Ventos and Turismo e Sociedade published the thematic dossiers. Rosa dos Ventos published 4 articles in 2012 and 7 in 2013; Turismo e Sociedade published 7 articles in 2014.

30 It is also important to mention the regularity of three journals: Hospitalidade (a journal affiliated to the Anhembi Morumbi University), which published 3 articles in 2012 and, then, one per year from 2014 to 2016; Cenário (linked to the University of Brasília) which published 2 articles in 2015 and 3 in 2016; and TURyDES (associated to the University of Havana), which published 2 articles in 2015 and 2 in 2016.

31 In order to show how recent this field is, it is interesting to analyse the emergence of journals. Most of the journals are quite new. Out of 24 journals, 5 initiated their activities in the 1990s, 11 in the 2000s, and 8 started between 2010 and 2013 (the lack from 2013 to 2016 is due to the fact that the evaluations of Qualis Periódicos considers only journals with at least 3 years of activity). Considering that incredible growing factor, it is easy to conclude that we are experiencing a significant expansion of tourism studies.

32 In this context, and in order to prove that the subfield of Brazilian tourism studies regarding gastronomy is already taking shape, we looked for authors with at least two publications in the journals and in the period set for analysis (2007-2016), observing the total of articles and the period between the first and the last of these, as one can see in Table 1.

Table 1: Total articles per author and period of publication.

33 Eighteen authors participated in 54 of the 78 articles we have analysed here. These data show a considerable influence of these authors on the subfield. Twelve of them published at least once in the last two years (2015-2016). These results show that this scientific subfield is not only consolidating, but also growing, and that it already has its pioneers, researchers that are becoming experts on tourism studies related to gastronomy.

Researchers’ academic education, main themes, methods, and perspectives

34 Based on the academic education (until 2016) of the 12 main authors (data available at their academic resumes in CNPq’s Currículo Lattes platform), we were able to create a kind of index of influence of the scientific fields in this subfield. The data based in the academic education of those authors, as one can see below, in Table 2, shows that there is an important influence of its original field, the field of tourism studies, particularly at the undergraduate degree, and that the influence from other fields of human sciences increases from the graduate degrees.

Table 2: Influence of scientific fields in the academic background of the 12 main authors

35 Following CAPES’ criteria (which in fact is used to evaluate only graduate degree programs), we placed the courses related to the field of tourism studies within the fields of business and public administration, and accounting sciences (which compose a single CAPES’ Evaluation Area). However, by highlighting the number of courses related to tourism studies, as we did in Table 2, we detect that the exclusive influence of those fields decreases a lot, being limited to 2 specialists (1 in marketing and finance for international business, and the other in public management) and 1 undergraduate degree (in business and management) among the 12 main authors.

36 It is important to notice the ‘organic’ influence of the field of tourism studies on the subfield under analysis: 9 have undergraduate degree in tourism, 4 are specialists, 7 are holders of a master’s degree, 1 is doctoral student and 3 have doctoral degree.

37 Still looking for autonomous influence upon the subfield, we found only 1 specialist from the field of gastronomy. We believe this to be a result of the features of gastronomy education in Brazil, which has a more professional, technological and business profile.

38 Regarding the influence of human sciences upon the subfield under analysis, it is important to remark the relevance of some fields such as geography (2 holders of master’s degree, and 2 of doctoral degree) – a pioneering field in tourism studies –; history (1 has undergraduate degree, has 1 master’s degree and 2 have doctoral degree); and communication (1 master’s degree and 1 doctoral degree).

39 It is also worth mentioning that the fields of political science and of international relations (which compose a single CAPES’ Evaluation Area) and the fields of anthropology and of archaeology (in same situation) did not score.

40 Considering political science and international relations, the result may indicate a focus on the legal sphere and not in the routine of power and communication among nations. This lack of participation is remarkable not only because several countries, as well as the United Nations and UNESCO, are concerned with promoting tourism and cultural heritage as an attraction, but also because tourism is eminently intercultural.

41 The lack of influence from anthropology indicates a major deficiency in the multidisciplinary background of tourism studies. It is a major deficiency because the object conceived in the relation between tourism and gastronomy demands some anthropological knowledge, which offers the appropriate tools to investigate the intercultural background of tourism relations. In Portugal, for example, the scholars of tourism and official authorities have recognized the benefits of the association between these two fields and have changed the curricula of tourism courses in order to increase anthropology’s relevance in these (MARUJO 2016).

42 We believe that the logic of super specialization inhibits foreign scholars from publishing in journals specialized in tourism studies. In addition, since these journals do not have good marks in other areas, they become unattractive to these scholars, as we can observe (see Annex 2) by verifying the ranking of tourism journals in each Evaluation Area. Only one of the tourism studies journals reached A2 in its Evaluation Area, the others are in the B range.

43 The Evaluation Area of Anthropology and Archaeology considered four journals, one scored B3 and three, scored B4. These grades make them less appealing for top researchers in this field.

44 The Evaluation Area of Sociology considered more magazines, totalizing fifteen; these also exhibit little visibility: three of them scored B3; three others were considered B4; seven scored B5; and two journals scored C.

45 These data indicate that researchers from other fields have no interest in publishing in tourism studies journals. This neglect ultimately strengthens the influence of business and public administration, weakens the weight of fields such as anthropology and sociology, and keeps tourism studies deprived from the required knowledge about culture, identity, and heritage that would guarantee theoretical density to the field. It is necessary to perform a critical analysis of CAPES’ evaluation criteria and division or fusion of scientific fields in Evaluation Areas, especially in fields eminently interdisciplinary such as tourism studies.

46 The next part of our analysis is classify – according to a content analysis of the abstract, introduction, and methodological description of each article – the methods employed in each type of research shown in Graphic 3.

Graphic 3: Distribution of articles per type of research.

Credit: the authors

47 The Qualitative Research (57 cases) employs the same methods applied to social research. It generally combines a participant observation, which is inspired in ethnological research, with interviews, surveys, content analysis (of menus, gastronomic guides, posters, and websites), and documentary research.

48 A Literature Review (9 cases) is the research that performs thematic reviews with deep analysis, but not always in a systematic manner. This type of research is frequently based on subjective criteria for the selection of its materials. A single author, who takes into account a small number of references and puts it in comparison, typically develops it.

49 In a Theoretical Essay (5 cases) the author establishes a dialogue between several articles of specialized journals with the purpose of analysing the influence or the potential influence of one or more theories in the field as a whole.

50 An Intervention Project (2 cases) is a research that aims at producing direct impact on the field, promoting concrete changes. This type of research generally attempts to encourage and actively intervene in the field, from improving a gastronomic festival to promoting a managerial reformulation of an important gastronomic business.

51 The Quantitative Research (1 case) is based solely on quantitative analysis. The data usually come from secondary sources and the results provide only statistical information.

52 A Systematic Review (none) is an analysis based on a prior selection of texts according to specific criteria. Usually developed by two or more authors, this kind of analysis provides an overview about a specific theme or object based on both qualitative and quantitative methods. We found a case of this type, however, the author of this article did not find any results in his search, and ended up carrying out a literature review. Thus, we considered this case within the cases of literature review.

53 In conclusion, there is a predominance of the methods used in qualitative researches, which involve participant observation, interview, and content analysis, combined with quantitative methods, which indicate the complexity of object of tourism studies on gastronomy. Although not many, there are a considerable number of literature reviews and theoretical essays, which suggests a concern about the consolidation and delimitation of this subfield.

54 Through a content analysis of the abstracts, introductions and conclusions of the articles, we classified the types of discourses that underlie the theoretical perspectives assumed in these 78 articles. We considered the manifestation of only two types of discourse per article – as one can see in Graphic 4 –, although there is a few of it that incorporates three and up to four types of discourses.

Graphic 4: Main theoretical-discursive perspectives (2 per article)

55 A liberal perspective (51 cases) regards the relationship between tourism and gastronomy from an optimistic and market-oriented standpoint. This perspective understands gastronomic tourism merely as an economic activity turned to the leisure of the tourist, and that necessarily implies local development. It frequently adopts an uncritical outlook and combines it with a hedonistic point of view. It is the hegemonic perspective in the Brazilian tourism studies on gastronomy, as we have seen in Graphic 4.

56 An ethnicity perspective (27 cases) relates places and gastronomy directly to ethnicity and cultural identity of individuals and groups, often, though, reinforcing touristic stereotypes and reproducing prejudice. This perspective depicts cultural changes and hybridization always as degeneration of traditional cuisine.

57 A cultural perspective (23 cases) focuses on the knowledge and the practices implied in the relation between tourism and gastronomy, which involves intercultural relations established in the practice and the imaginary.

58 A managerial perspective (20 cases) focuses on issues relative to business and management of gastronomic tourism in both public and private sector.

59 A developmental perspective (15 cases) addresses tourism initiatives, and considers both local and regional development of these, considering gastronomy and tourism as consequences of economic progress.

60 A critical perspective (6 cases) highlights the contradictory aspects of tourism, such as social inequality in tourism destinations and environmental unsustainability of some consumption practices; it also emphasizes the disparity of intercultural relations in tourism.

61 A health perspective (3 cases) gives prominence to food safety and other issues related to transformation in food chains. In addition, it debates subjects related to nutritional habits and healthy tourism.

62 An epistemological perspective (2 cases) examines specific research methods designed for tourism studies on gastronomy, or methods that one could apply to these.

63 A semiotic perspective (1 case) understands gastronomy and tourism in a communicational dimension. It stresses out the meanings and the imaginary of food, the relevance of visual elements and landscapes, and the ambiance of restaurants, the design of the menus, the gastronomic guides, as well as the native clothing, the food’s presentation, and so on.

64 We based our last analysis on the ‘tag cloud’ below, which results of a computational method of content analysis. It counts all the articles keywords and highlights those ones whit more occurrences, indirectly highlighting their main themes, as seen in Graphic 5 and in Table 3:

Graphic 5: Tag cloud of the keywords (minimum occurrence = 4 > 5%).

Table 3: Tags count (minimum occurrence = 4 > 5%).

65 After introducing the main themes and the content of the articles, we can now carry out a conceptual analysis. Our final aim is to present a substantial interpretation of the subject.

66 Considering the occurrence of the tag “gastronomy” (34 > 43%), we found out that it is a term adopted in almost a half of the analysed articles. This term suits tourism studies perfectly, since it applies to a wide range of sociocultural manifestations related to food, from culinary identity, knowledge and techniques to the market-oriented consumption.

67 The term “gastronomy” varies in the context of tourism. The term “enogastronomy”, e.g., is a derivative of the first term that includes the prefix “eno”, which derives from ancient Greek language and means “wine”. “Wine tourism” has proven to be expressive. The word “wine” appeared a lot (16 > 20%) at the keywords. Miguel Bahl and Vander Valduga organized a thematic special dossier on wine tourism in 2014, comprising six articles. Ten more articles spread among the analysed publications include the term “wine” in their keywords.

13 Distilled spirit made from fermented sugarcane juice.

68 The importance of wine in tourism studies is an interesting phenomenon, and the fact that the occurrence of the term “wine” surpasses a lot the occurrence of terms related to Brazilian traditional drinks, such as “cachaça” 13 (which was object of 2 studies), “coffee” (2 studies too), and “beer” (one study), makes the phenomenon even more interesting. This comparison suggests that “wine tourism” is more interconnected with the scientific instances than those other cultural goods, regarding not only market, but also academy.

69 A few years ago, the production of wine in Brazil was still quite insignificant. Unlike cachaça and beer, it was linked to specific families and small traditional craft wine producers, and restricted to the sphere of domestic and local consumption. Nonetheless, in the area colonized by Italians in the South region of Brazil, especially in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, came up a micro region that became known as the Vale dos Vinhedos (Valley of the Vineyards), which was able to attract thousands of tourists. Valley of the Vineyards is the popular name of the officially denominated Grape and Wine Region ( Região da Uva e do Vinho ) in the State of Rio Grande do Sul. The government of this State directly invests in researches related to wine, and several professional and undergraduate courses related to gastronomy, tourism and wine recently aroused there. In the wake of this process, people of some other places and regions are trying to reinforce that vocation. It is the case of the less known city of Paraúna in the State of Goiás, and it is the case of other cities in Southern Bahia, in Southern Minas Gerais, and in the interior of the States of Pernambuco and São Paulo.

70 The tag “food” (19 > 24%) also appeared a lot. Its appearance, however, is more restricted to cultural discussions, which involves the importance of food in everyday local practices and the transformation of these practices by intercultural relations and tourism. The occurrence of the term “food” is near to the occurrence of the “Cultural perspective” (23 > 29%), which points to a possible slope aligned with the field of anthropology within the subfield of tourism studies on gastronomy.

71 Three other tags also point to a ‘cultural’ use of the term “food”, which are “culture” (8 > 10%), “identity” (7 > 8%), and “heritage” (10 > 12%). However, if we compare this result with the occurrence of the theoretical perspectives, we will observe that discussions about ethnicity occur in about 27 articles (> 34%), which express a considerable difference. In fact, although discussions about ethnicity and cultural traditions are not the subject of these articles, they have appeared in about 35% of the articles, being associated not only with the Cultural perspective, but also with the Liberal (51 > 65%), the Managerial (20 > 25%), and the Developmental (15 > 19%).

72 The tag “development” was found only in the keywords of 4 articles (> 5%), however, we detected a developmental perspective underlying at least 15 studies. Some of these seem more concerned with “sustainable development” and “regional development”, and others are mainly enthusiastic supporters of tourism modernization, i.e., always relating development to entrepreneurship, employment and income generation. This perspective also extends itself and reaches enthusiasts of heritage, which directly links the safeguard of popular and traditional cultures to local development.

73 The occurrence of managerial perspectives in 25% of the articles explains the inclusion by CAPES of tourism studies in the same field of ‘b usiness and public administration, and accounting sciences’ , and perhaps reflects the pragmatic core of social sciences applied to the business and management of tourism and gastronomy activities. The range of this perspective goes from restaurants case studies to local gastronomic festivals and the management of large businesses, as in the case of the wineries in the South of Brazil.

74 The hegemony of liberal perspectives (which encompasses 65% of the articles) seems to reflect an optimism regarding tourism economy in Brazil, especially regarding gastronomic activities, which generates enormous revenues even in periods of economic crisis. However, this also reflects an uncritical attitude on the part of the articles’ authors, which rule out the possibility of a predatory tourism. The occurrence of the tag “experience” (6 > 7%) sheds light on an important aspect of liberal perspectives, which is based on notions that emphasizes the hedonistic features of consumption. In this context, critical approaches are not welcome, and the liberal discourse incorporates many others, including those about popular culture and ethnicity. This suggests an instrumental and market-oriented use of terms that are concepts for anthropology (as one can see by the use of notions such as those of “ethnomarketing” and of “folkmarketing”), which is frequently an attempt to add a distinctive value to the main idea.

75 It is worth mentioning that the timid but considerable occurrence of critical perspectives (6 > 7%) indicates an intersection with another subfield of tourism studies, that of critical tourism studies. This subfield challenges the field’s dominant discourses and proposes a critical look into the nature of power in tourism relations, leading to an emerging critical turn in tourism studies.

76 The ‘traditionalization’ of modern tourism industry derives mostly from a general concern about the preservation of an idyllic past, a “rhetorical of loss” that grounds the Brazilian official discourses on cultural heritage (Gonçalves 2012). Tourism scholars also support this rhetoric. They frequently have the same concerns of ethnologists, who regard with “pessimism” what they consider the possible cause of the extinction of the traditional cultures, the extinction of the modern Other (Sahlins 1997).

77 In light of this apocalyptical hegemonic discourse, the heritage of the so-called “traditional societies” has become valuable and scarce goods, which could require record and safeguard. Hence, “traditional cuisines” started to play a central role in gastronomy. This phenomenon came up in the eighties, when traditional cuisines, and therefore gastronomy, began to draw the attention of researchers, investors, and governments, which were all concerned with the danger of cultural dissolution of the ‘small communities’ that were supposedly suffering the consequences of globalization and, therefore, losing their authentic features. (Collaço 2013)

78 Collaço (2013) highlights that gastronomy recovers some ‘forgotten’ culinary elements and make in instruments to keep alive a supposed tradition and to intensify the economic activities related to local identities. Therefore, the idea of ‘authenticity’ becomes stronger and acquires a new meaning in this context: a project of organizing a corpus of knowledge that would be capable of revealing the differences between different cuisines around the world. Differences for consumption and eventually, for a certain control.

79 The possibility of consumption and control a dds economic, political, and cultural elements to the analysis. Hence, we can no longer understand nostalgia as a modern pathology, but rather as a search for tradition, on the one hand, and as an “intensification” of local cultures through an increased dialogue with modern and globalized cultures, on the other hand. (Shalins 1997)

80 Nowadays, “difference” has a huge demand as a cultural asset, and the touristic industry has captured this trend and is exploring it. It relates traditions, authenticity labelling, and the ‘feeling’ of nostalgia to gastronomy. This demand for traditional culture consumption suggests a contemporaneous tendency in which dealing with difference is the sign of superior tourism, even if this difference is somehow controlled and domesticated. (Goody 1982)

81 Interaction with other cultures is now considered as something positive, which creates a sense of freedom. Nevertheless, it contributes to the artificial maintenance of practices of the so-called traditional cultures and peoples, which find themselves forced to preserve a certain configuration. Therefore, in practice, this arrangement ultimately constitutes a way of conservatism. (Sen 2007)

82 Furthermore, gastronomy and tourism are not restricted to a search for traditional experiences, and people who enjoy this kind of tourism generally live in urban areas and define themselves as “cosmopolites”. (Hannerz 1997; Appiah 2007)

Final considerations: new issues about tourism studies on gastronomy

83 In Brazil, tourism studies on gastronomy are quite recent and, therefore, still underdeveloped if compared to their status in countries such as England, France, Italy, Spain, and Portugal. The same is truth about the development of tourism studies in countries of the Latin America and Caribbean region, as well as in Mexico. We sought to understand not only the reasons of this delay, but also the causes of the recent boom in this subfield. A systematic analysis of the scientific production about the theme has proven to be the best way to find valuable clues and to provide an overview of Brazilian tourism studies on gastronomy.

84 The lack of influence from the field of anthropology in Brazilian tourism studies regarding gastronomy is a serious issue. This suggests that until recent years tourism studies did not pay much attention to anthropological concepts, which could be helpful to promote an interaction between different fields. This phenomenon has gained relevance due to the disputes between capitalists, governments and local people over cultural heritage, constituting a scenario to which anthropologists are already familiar.

85 Despite private and public sectors interest in publicizing destinations in several types of media, we are already witnessing a predominance of the use of digital and social media to find and evaluate traveling and food services.

86 Internet enables new ways of social living. It also increases the competition for power and acknowledgement by the expansion of this touristic consumption of the modern otherness. The access to such cultural information and its content in images, forms, and values contributes directly to the construction of ideas about the national, the ethnical, and the race, as well as about gender, age, class, food, and so on.

87 In the 19 th century, at the beginning of professional tourism, the chronicles of the adventure explorers and of the intellectuals and aristocrat travellers were the most common source of cultural stereotypes and “folkways”. This literature was very much popular among the rich cosmopolite citizens of Europe searching for “eccentric, exotic and authentic human realities” (Santana 2009: 27-28) (Authors translation). Nowadays, however, ordinary people are the main dissipaters of cultural stereotypes, which one can easily find in social media. They use apps such as Swarm (by Foursquare), TripAdvisor and Google Maps to make noticed their presence and share their opinions related to the places they visit. Thus, the tourists and local consumers in general are who evaluate and rank touristic destinations, restaurants and pubs in real time.

88 In addition to a matter of taste and fantasy to meet cosmopolitan consumption, we need to consider the social and political institutions and the cultures and places involved in this kind of consumption. Took as a practice, this consumption articulates the deeper social structures of hegemonic globalization and bring us to observe the social dynamics and power relations established between ‘modern’ and ‘traditional’ cultures. Therefore, it is not by chance that this encounter of cultures shall reveal the political competition settled in the ambivalence of local (or regional, or national, and traditional) identities and cosmopolitan (modern) identities.

89 According to Espeitx (2004), every element that constitutes a culture constitutes its heritage, and even if food heritages are not always acknowledged by official institutions, like IPHAN ( Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico e Artísitico Nacional [ National Historic and Artistic Heritage Institute] of Brazil) or UNESCO , it plays a central role in entertainment and tourism industries.

90 Tourism marketing frequently means a selection of elements related to a tradition or to some “local culture” considered as a connection to past generations and/or to a specific place, and as an adaptation of these in order to make them attractive to cosmopolitan consumers. The recent increase of tourism activities has stimulated the scientific research on food-tourism, and culture appears as an important concept for tourism studies, demanding anthropological knowledge.

91 From a historical approach, Trentmann (2006) argues that the globalization of those elements commonly related to “tradition” and the emergence of consumers attracted by those elements began to settle only in the end of the 20 th century. By that time, some new mechanisms for the circulation of goods and different concepts of civic duties were arising, and national identities were emerging and sparking cultural confrontations. These confrontations became the very connection between different cultures and societies, creating a political arena that would later lose power due to increasing individualism.

92 It is important to notice that scholars constantly revisit the notion of consumption, and that, in some cases, we can consider the consumer’s choice as a “responsibility”, e.g., if they take into account the “sustainability” and the “political morality” involved in their decision (Sassatelli 2015). However, when considering it an “alternative consumption” the argument above raises a question about the contradictory nature of consumption, since ‘normal consumers’ (and the majority of Brazilian tourism studies researchers) apparently ignore the ‘political’ content of their choices, making us question the tourism industry interests in local cultures and their food heritage.

93 In this context, strategies to attract consumers seem to rule the relation between gastronomy and tourism, making “ethnicity” and “food heritage” only a fuel for the market. However, for the local peoples, food-tourism and gastronomy in general may become an important way to project and protect themselves and their cultural heritage in the globalized world.

Bibliography

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ESPEITX E. 2004. “Patrimonio alimentario y turismo: una relación singular”, PASOS: revista de turismo y patrimonio cultural , 2(2) : 193-213, accessed 23 May 2017 : [http://pasosonline.org/en/articles/147-patrimonio_alimentario_y_turismo_una_relacin_singular].

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GOODY J. 1982. Cooking, cuisine and class. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

HANNERZ U. 1997. “Fluxos, fronteiras, híbridos: palavras-chave da antropologia transnacional”, Mana , 3(1) : 7-39, accessed 23 May 2017 : [http://www.scielo.br/pdf/mana/v3n1/2454.pdf].

IBGE (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística). 2012. Economia do turismo: uma perspectiva macroeconômica: 2003-2009 . Rio de Janeiro: IBGE.

MARUJO N. 2015. “Antropologia e Turismo: a importância da Antropologia nos cursos superiores de Turismo em Portugal”, RITUR – Revista Iberoamericana de Turismo , 5(2) : 44-60, accessed 14 September 2017 : [http://www.seer.ufal.br/index.php/ritur/article/view/1849/1599].

SAHLINS M. D. O. 1997. “‘Pessimismo sentimental’ e a experiência etnográfica: por que a cultura não é um ‘objeto’ em via de extinção (parte I)”, Mana , 1(3) : 41-150, accessed 23 May 2017 : [http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0104-93131997000100002].

SANTANA A. 2009. Antropologia do Turismo: analogias, encontros e relações . São Paulo: Aleph.

SASSATELLI R. 2015. “Contestação e consumo alternativo: a moralidade política da comida”, Tessituras , 3(2) : 10-34, accessed 23 May 2017 : [https://periodicos.ufpel.edu.br/ojs2/index.php/tessituras/article/view/5964].

SEN A. K. 2007. “Culture and captivity”, in D. Held & H. L. Moore (ed.) Cultural Politics in a global age. Oxford: Oneworld Publications.

TRENTMANN F. 2006. The modern genealogy of the consumer: meanings, identities and political synapses. In: BREWER, J. & TRENTMANN, F. (Org.) Consuming cultures, global perspectives. Historical trajectories, transnational exchanges. Oxford: Berg.

Annex 1 : Acronyms of institutions.

Annex 2 : Qualis Periódicos evaluation (in 2016) of each selected journal at each Evaluation Area; basic information about the journals (first number date, institutional bond and country of origin); and number of articles on tourism and gastronomy with at least one author linked to a Brazilian institution.

A nnex 3: List of all the analysed articles.

1 Considering only journals that are specialized in tourism studies, we abandon the dependence on a specific indexing database and focus the analysis on one scientific subfield, that of Brazilian tourism studies. In addition, our preference for the open access journals reflects the Brazilian scientific culture, in which the vast majority of scientific activities and data are publicly available. This last choice does not weaken the analytical scope of our proposal, since in a pre-analysis we found that only one article (in a universe of 79) was out of our range. Seventy-eight were included in the analysis, which reinforces this feature of Brazilian scientific culture, especially in the area of Humanities, which is less committed to the market.

2 In Brazil, a scoring system known as “Qualis Periódicos” evaluates the scientific journals in which authors linked to Brazilian institutions have published articles, indirectly evaluating the quality of their production. An author’s visibility and credibility – and, consequently, the financial support he or she receives from public or private institutions, or even to stay in a graduate program as student or professor – may depend, among other things, on the quality of the journals in which he or she publishes his or her papers.

3 In Brazil, we have only 11 graduate programs in tourism studies (4 master’s programs, 3 professional master’s programs, and 4 programs with doctoral and master’s degrees) among 189 acknowledged and evaluated by the government as belonging to a single scientific field, that of ‘Business and Public Administration, Accounting Sciences, and Tourism’. Data available at: [https://sucupira.capes.gov.br/sucupira/public/consultas/coleta/programa/quantitativos/quantitativoAreaConhecimento.jsf?areaAvaliacao=27]. Accessed in: May 2017.

4 We provide an ‘overview’ because we do not intend to write a dense literature review, since we are dealing with 78 articles from several matrices, and because we developed this research in the period of 6 months, aiming at maintaining the importance and the ‘freshness’ of the data.

5 Evaluation criteria available for consultation at : [http://capes.gov.br/avaliacao/sobre-as-areas-de-avaliacao].

6 Except for the journals linked to strictu sensu graduate programs recognized by CAPES. Exception that we applied according to the legitimacy of their editorial bodies and the quality of the articles.

7 One can access Plataforma Sucupira at the following address: [https://sucupira.capes.gov.br/sucupira/public/consultas/coleta/veiculoPublicacaoQualis/listaConsultaGeralPeriodicos.jsf].

8 According to CAPES (2017), which is linked to the Brazilian Ministry of Education (MEC), the College of Humanities contemplates three “Great areas” of scientific knowledge, in which eight disciplinary evaluation areas have considered at least one journal on tourism studies:

“Human Sciences” ― “Anthropology and Archeology” [1]; “History” [2]; “Geography” [3]; “Political Science and International Relations” [4]; “Sociology” [5]);

“Applied Social Sciences” ― “Communication and Information” [6]; “Economic Sciences” [7]; “Business and Public Administration, Accounting Sciences, and Tourism” [8];

“Linguistic, Languages and Arts” ― none.

9 Regarding this methodological choice, we must do two considerations: (1) more possibilities would make that many articles that only mention the gastronomy (or related terms) contaminate the research; (2) some of the articles that we should consider in this research were lost due to indexing failures and search engine limitations.

10 Registration in Currículo Lattes , which is the curriculum system of CNPq, is mandatory for any scholar of a Brazilian graduate program. Website address: http://buscacv.cnpq.br/buscacv/#/ .

11 The first special thematic issue, entitled Tourism and Gastronomy, was published in 2012, and comprised 3 articles from at least one author linked to a Brazilian Institution. Maria Henriqueta S. G. Gimenes-Minasse and Rosana Peccini organized the first and the second special thematic issue, which was also entitled Tourism and Gastronomy. It was published in 2013, and comprised 5 articles.

12 The special thematic issue on Wine tourism, organized by Miguel Bahl and Vander Valduga, in 2014, that comprises 6 articles.

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Electronic reference.

Filipe Augusto Couto Barbosa and Janine Helfst Leicht Collaço , “ Eating identities and places ” ,  Anthropology of food [Online], 13 | 2018, Online since 21 January 2019 , connection on 18 April 2024 . URL : http://journals.openedition.org/aof/8468; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/aof.8468

About the authors

Filipe augusto couto barbosa.

Université Fédérale de Goiás (UFG), Brésil, École des Sciences Sociales, Groupe d’étude sur la consommation, la culture et l’alimentation, [email protected]

Janine Helfst Leicht Collaço

Université Fédérale de Goiás (UFG), Brésil, École des Sciences Sociales, Groupe d’étude sur la consommation, la culture et l’alimentation, [email protected]

By this author

• Food and the body politic: The Australian media and fear of “foreign” foods, a review [Full text] Published in Anthropology of food , S8 | 2013
• From the mammas to cosmopolitan restaurants [Full text] One century of Italian restaurants in the city of São Paulo (Brazil) Des mammas aux restaurants cosmopolites: un siècle de restaurants italiens dans la ville de São Paulo (Brésil) Published in Anthropology of food , S8 | 2013
• Das mammas’as ao restaurante cosmopolita [Full text] Um século de restaurantes italianos na cidade de São Paulo (Brasil) From Mamma's Cantina to Cosmopolitan Restaurant. One Century of Italian Restaurants in Sâo Paulo Published in Anthropology of food , 7 | December 2010

The text only may be used under licence CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 . All other elements (illustrations, imported files) are “All rights reserved”, unless otherwise stated.

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Governability of tourist policies: the role of the participation spaces in the perspective of the network analysis and the institutional theory

La gobernanza de las políticas de turismo: el papel de los espacios de participación visto desde la perspectiva del análisis de redes y de la teoría institucional (el caso del estado de paraíba, brasil).

The discussions presented in this article propose an original reading on the participation in the processes of the tourist implementation policies subject to institutionalized spaces searching for more legitimacy than efficiency. The study is supported by a theoretical outline that sees the reflex of isomorphic processes in the institutional in-force changes. Objective: to study out the specific spaces between the state and non-state actors - projected by the tourist policies - strengthen the new governability. Methodology/Approach: the study of these processes is circumscribed to the imaginary limits of the organizational field defined by the tourist public policies network in Paraiba/Brazil. Both the field and the network were sketched as from the directed interviews, documents and bibliographic analysis and represented by sociograms, formulated via mathematical resources through the Social Network Analysis - SNA. The studied spaces of participation have their headquarters in Joao Pessoa, capital of Paraiba State. Results: the reading of the obtained results suggests that the institutionalized spaces of participation by the new governability have a transforming potential of the tourist reality in Paraiba, as they influence on the actions and strategies of the local actors. Yet, it is still early to assess if the spaces really produce significant institutional changes to deepen really legitimated and more efficient participative processes as well. Their virtuous circle may promote values and practices to strengthen the new governability.

Keywords: New institutionalism; Governability; Social Network Analysis - SNA; Public tourist policies; Paraiba/Brazil

Las discusiones presentadas en este artículo proponen una lectura original de la participación en el proceso de implementación de políticas de turismo sujetas a espacios institucionalizados que buscan más legitimidad de que eficiencia. El estudio tiene por base una visión teórica que ve los cambios institucionales en vigor como un reflejo de procesos isomórficos. Objetivo: analizar como los espacios específicos de deliberación entre los actores estatales y no estatales, proyectados por las políticas de turismo, fortalecen la nueva gobernanza. Metodología/Abordaje: el estudio de estos procesos se circunscribe a los límites del campo organizacional definidos por la red de políticas públicas de turismo en el estado de Paraíba (Nordeste del Brasil). Tanto el campo cuanto la red fueron delineados a partir de entrevistas dirigidas y análisis documental y bibliográfico, y están representados por sociogramas elaborados con los recursos matemáticos propios del análisis de redes sociales - ARS. Resultados: la lectura de los resultados así obtenidos sugiere que los espacios de participación institucionalizados por la nueva gobernanza disponen de potencial para transformar la realidad turística de la Paraíba, puesto que influyen en las acciones y estrategias de los actores locales. Sin embargo, aún es temprano para evaluar si estos espacios realmente producen cambios institucionales significativos que ahonden procesos verdaderamente participativos, legítimos y también más eficaces. Su círculo virtuoso podría llegar a establecer valores y prácticas que fortalezcan la nueva gobernanza.

Palabras clave: Neoinstitucionalismo; Gobernanza; Análisis de Redes Sociales - ARS; Políticas públicas de turismo; Paraíba/Brasil

Propósito: as discussões apresentadas neste artigo propõem uma leitura original sobre a participação no processo de implementação de políticas de turismo sujeita a espaços institucionalizados que visam buscar mais legitimidade do que eficiência. O estudo é sustentado por um recorte teórico que vê nas mudanças institucionais vigentes o reflexo de processos isomórficos. Objetivo: analisar como os espaços específicos de deliberação entre os atores estatais e não-estatais, projetados pelas políticas de turismo, fortalecem a nova governança. Metodologia/Abordagem: o estudo destes processos está circunscrito aos limites imaginários do campo organizacional definidos pela rede de políticas públicas de turismo na Paraíba/Brasil. Tanto o campo quanto a rede foram delineados a partir de entrevistas direcionadas, análise documental e bibliográfica e representados por sociogramas, formulados via recursos matemáticos através da Análise de Redes Sociais - ARS. Os espaços de participação analisados têm sede na capital da Paraíba, João Pessoa. Resultados: a leitura dos resultados obtidos sugere que os espaços de participação institucionalizados pela nova governança têm potencial transformador da realidade turística da Paraíba, pois influem nas ações e estratégias dos atores locais. Contudo, ainda é cedo para se avaliar se estes espaços realmente produzem mudanças institucionais significativas que aprofundem processos verdadeiramente participativos, legítimos, e também mais eficazes. Seu círculo virtuoso pode vir a instituir valores e práticas que fortaleçam a nova governança.

Palavras-chave: Neoinstitucionalismo; Governança; Análise de Redes Sociais - ARS; Políticas públicas de turismo; Paraíba/Brasil

1 INTRODUTION

The redemocratization processes throughout the world evinced since the 1980s, the orientation toward institutional changes that allow a wider social participation in the implementation of public policies has undergone some pressure and has become the basis of discussions to offer the state a higher action capacity to improve its performance and provide the tourism activity with the expected results.

The proposed institutional changes refer to the rules and values that are outlined by actions and behaviors supported by cooperation and participation of the various social actors within the relationships between state and society. This is a trajectory that tends to go from an inefficient bureaucratic administration to a new public service interested in improving the governance that mediates these relationships ( Gomes & Secchi, 2015 Gomes, R. C.; Secchi, L. (2015). Public Administration in Brazil: structure, reforms, and participation. In: Massey, Andrew; Johnston, Karen. (Org.). The International Handbook on Public Administration and Governance. 1ed.Cheltenham: Edgar Elgar, 1, 226-246. ; Draibe, 2014 Draibe, S. (2014). Policy analysis in Brazil: emergence and institutionalization. Brazilian Political Science Review, 8(2), 118-122. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-38212014000100014 https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-38212014000... ; Secchi, 2009; Frey, 2004 ______. (2004). Governança interativa: uma concepção para compreender a gestão pública participativa? Política & Sociedade, Florianópolis, 5, 117-136 , 2000; Rhodes, 1996 Rhodes, R. A. W. (1996). The new governance: governing without government. Political studies, 652-667. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1996.tb01747.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1996... ), centralized actions toward more decentralized and participative structures and mechanisms ( Kimbo & Ngoasong, 2013 Kimbo, A. N.; Ngoasong, M. Z. (2013). Centralised decentralisation of tourism development: a network perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 40, 235-259. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.09.005 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.09... ; Endres, 2014 Endres, A. V. (2014). As políticas de turismo no Brasil e os novos arranjos institucionais: o papel das organizações locais. In: Pimentel, T. D.; Emmendoerfer, M. L.; Tomazzoni, E. L. Gestão pública do turismo no Brasil: teorias, metodologias e aplicações. Caxias do Sul, EDUSC, 91-124. ; Secchi, 2010), a situation that emphasizes the great capital toward another allowing the widening of local and endogenous values (Secchi, 2016; Arrais, 2012).

To make the new governance resulting from these changes effective, increasing evidence is required to strengthen the management capacity of the actors who participate in the changes and in the institutional relationships established between them to make the proposed actions more efficient. In this regard, it is important to observe how the state and the remaining actors play their roles that are now imposed on them by a management style based on sharing and participating in the partnerships and cooperation. Studies conducted by Nunkoo (2017 Nunkoo, R. (2017). Governance and sustainable tourism: What is the role of trust, power and social capital? Journal of Destination Marketing & Management. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2017.10.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2017.10.0... ), Lin and Simmons (2017 Lin, D.; Simmons, D. (2017). Structured inter-network collaboration: Public participation in tourism planning in Southern China. Tourism Management, 63, 315-328. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.06.024 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.0... ), Blasco (2014 Blasco, D. et al. (2014) Emergence of governance in cross-border destinations. Annals of Tourism Research, 49, 159-173. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2014.09.002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2014.09... ), and Pastras and Bramwell (2013 Pastras, P.; Bramwell, B. (2013). A strategic-relational approach to tourism policy. Annals of Tourism Research, 43, 390-414. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2013.06.009 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2013.06... ) incessantly argued for the need of a coordination structure to gather all institutional levels and policies to reach the desired social target, i.e., the community.

As part of this reality, we observe that discourses of tourism policy refer to the possibility of change arising from new network arrangements, so easing the process of decentralization and participation as ingredients for enhancing tourism governance ( Der Zee, 2017 Der Zee, E.v. (2017). Complexity in the governance of tourism networks: balancing between external pressure and internal expectations. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2017.07.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2017.07.0... ; Jesus & Franco, 2016 Jesus, C.; Franco, M. (2016). Cooperation networks in tourism: A study of hotels and rural tourism establishments in an inland region of Portugal. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 29, 165-175. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2016.07.005 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2016.07.0... ; Trentin, 2016 Trentin, F. (2016). Governança turística em destinos brasileiros: comparação entre Armação dos Búzios/RJ, Paraty/RJ e Bonito/MS. PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 14(3), 645-658. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25145/j.pasos.2016.14.042 https://doi.org/10.25145/j.pasos.2016.14... ; González, 2014 González, M. V. P. (2014). Gobernanza turística: ¿Políticas públicas innovadoras o retórica banal? Caderno Virtual de Turismo. Edição especial: Hospitalidade e políticas públicas em turismo, 14(1), 9-22. ; Endres, 2014 Endres, A. V. (2014). As políticas de turismo no Brasil e os novos arranjos institucionais: o papel das organizações locais. In: Pimentel, T. D.; Emmendoerfer, M. L.; Tomazzoni, E. L. Gestão pública do turismo no Brasil: teorias, metodologias e aplicações. Caxias do Sul, EDUSC, 91-124. ; Knupp, 2014 Knupp, M. E. C. G. (2014). Análise de políticas públicas de turismo: uma abordagem metodológica baseada em redes sociais. In: Pimentel, T. D.; Emmendoerfer, M. L.; Tomazzoni, E. L. Gestão pública do turismo no Brasil: teorias, metodologias e aplicações. Caxias do Sul: EDUSC. ; Hall, 2011 Hall, C. M. (2011). Typology of governance and its implications for tourism policy analysis. Journal of sustainable tourism, 19(4-5), 437-57. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2011.570346 https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2011.57... ). Yet, we cannot ignore the fact that these arrangements are typical of an institutional monoculture ( Evans, 2004 ______. (2004). Development as institutional change: the pitfalls of monocropping and the potentials of deliberation. Studies in Comparative International Development, 38, 30-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686327 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686327... ; Frey, 2000 Frey, K. (2000). Políticas públicas: um debate conceitual e reflexões referentes à prática da análise de políticas públicas no Brasil. Planejamento e política públicas, 21, 211-259. ) conceived by a dominating structure, composed by supranational and international spheres, to point out - or even direct - the way developing countries ought to follow to achieve public policy effectiveness.

In Brazil, the still-open results of these strategies for the effectiveness of new governance is guided as per the ways through which the state relates with civil society, be it as from FHC’s (1994-2002) administration managerialism presuppositions ( Paula, 2005 Paula, A. P. P. (2005). Por uma nova gestão pública: limites e potencialidades da experiência contemporânea. Rio de Janeiro: Editora da Fundação Getúlio Vargas. ) experienced in the Programa Nacional de Municipalização do Turismo - PNMT (National Program of Tourism Municipalization - NPTM ) (1994-2002) (Brasil, 1994), as well as other subsequent management models, which adopted several mechanisms of governance for this purpose ( Avritzer, 2009 Avritzer, L. et.al. (2009). Experiências nacionais de participação social. Belo Horizonte: Cortez. ). During Lula’s (2003-2011) and Dilma’s (2011-2016) administrations these mechanism were reflected in the 2003/2007 and 2007/2010 Planos Nacionais de Turismo (National Tourism Plans) (Brasil, 2003; 2006) and in the Programa de Regionalização do Turismo - PRT (Tourism Regionalization Program) (2003 - ) (Brasil, 2004; 2013). Regardless of the federal administrations to which these policies are linked, all of them bring - in their structure - a variety of participation spaces such as forums, councils, and committees. Statutory conditions are not the focus in this context, but rather understanding that these participation experiences, formally institutionalized and tied up to the state bureaucratic structure, are indispensable for their implementation.

We also observe that these mechanisms, despite official discourse, are not necessarily guided by an efficient and effective rationality of public policies ( Vale & Lobo, 2007 Vale, N. O.; Lobo, C. G. A. (2007). Legitimidade e eficiência nos modelos institucionais. Anais. XIII Congresso Brasileiro de Sociologia. UFPE, Recife. ), but by a rationality that tries to manage the demands. And this does not refer much to the desired objectives and more efficient rational-intentional courses of action to reach them, but to the basic rules for structural arrangements and institutional schemes constituting the means through which the processes inherent to public policies get developed. Therefore, this research fits in the so called new institutional studies ( Peters, 2000 Peters, B. G. (2000). Institutional theory: problems and prospects. Political Science Series. Institute for Advanced Studies, Vienna ; Hall & Taylor, 1996 Hall, P. A.; Taylor, R. (1996). Political science and the three new institutionalism. Political Studies, 44 (5), 936-957. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1996.tb00343.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1996... ; Evans, 1995 Evans, P. (1995). Embedded autonomy: states and industrial transformation. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ; DiMaggio & Powell, 1991 DiMaggio, P. J.; Powell, W. (eds.). (1991). Introduction. The new institutionalism in organizational analysis. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. ; North, 1990 North, D. (1990). Institutions, institutional change and economic development. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press North. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511808678 https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511808678... ; Ostron, 1986; March & Olsen, 1984 March, J. G.; Olsen, J. P. (1984). The new institutionalism: organizational factors in political life. The American Political Science Review, 78 (2), 734-749. ; Granovetter, 1985 Granovetter, M. (1985). Economic action and social structure: the problem of embeddedness. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 481-510. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/228311 https://doi.org/10.1086/228311... ; Skocpol, 1985 Skocpol, T. (1985). Bringing the state back in: strategies of analiysis in current reserarch. In: Evans, P.; Rueschemeter, D.; Skocpol, T. Bringing the state back in. Sage: London, 1985 . DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511628283.002 https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511628283... ), which emphasize the fact that institutions matter and try to understand how they manage to constrain behaviors to make them adjust to the legitimacy of their actions and the intended participation.

In this context, the observed issues are revealed by the tenuous relationship between effectiveness and legitimate participation in tourism public policy and the discourse of the state/non-state actors’ combination to its implementation. Under this perspective, this study main objective is to understand how the specific spaces of deliberation (such as Councils, Forums, and other mechanisms proposed by tourism policies) strengthen new governance. The specific objectives are i) construction of the Paraiba tourism policies network, by the identification of the institutional links established between actors from the four analyzed parti-cipation spaces; ii) the identification of the most central actors in the network to delimit the organizational field of the sector, through which the organizations are constrained to reinforce or discourage the institutio-nalization of rules, norms, and values based on isomorphic processes.

As said before, the theoretic-methodological framework is based on institutional theory and social network analysis (SNA). Institutional studies present a variety of approaches, such as historical/empirical, rational choice or economic, sociological, and normative institutionalism ( Peters, 2003 _______. (2003). El nuevo institucionalismo: la teoría institucional en ciencia política. Barcelona: Gedisa. ). Among such views, this study makes use of the concepts proposed by Meyers and Rowan (1977 Meyer, J. W.; Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), 340-363. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/226550 https://doi.org/10.1086/226550... ), DiMaggio and Powell (1983 DiMaggio P. J.; Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48 (2), 147-160. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101 https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101... ) and Scott (1999 Scott, W. R. (1999). Retomando los argumentos institucionales. In: Powell, W. & DiMaggio, P. (Orgs.) El nuevo institucionalismo en el análisis organizacional. México D. F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 217-236. ), which integrate the classic analyses of the sociological new institutionalism. The chosen actors present complementary perspectives that help to understand the behavior of organizations that are part of the political process. These theoretical perspectives were chosen because they are all guided by the basic principle that says behavior is endogenous to the decision process, built up from the relationship established by the organizational field, within which the political actors are circumscribed.

This theoretical framework has influenced the choice of the method, the SNA, which is focused on showing the relationships between actors, but not on their attributes ( Sañudo, 2015 Sañudo, J. E. P. (2015). 7 lecturas para iniciarse en análisis de redes sociales. Una selección de REDES. REDES - Revista Hispana para el Análisis de Redes Sociales, 26(1). ; Hannemann, 2001 Hanneman, R. A. (2001). Introducción a los métodos del análisis de redes sociales. Disponível em: <http://revista-redes.rediris.es/webredes/textos/cap8.pdf> Acesso em: 15 abr. 2016. http://revista-redes.rediris.es/webredes... ; Wellman, 2000 Wellman, B. (2000). El análisis estructural; del método y la metáfora a la teoría y la substancia. Política y sociedad, Madrid, 33, 11-40. ; Scott, 2005 Scott, J. (2005). Social network analysis. London: SAGE. ). Thus, in essence, the bigger the number of relationships presented by the organizations (actors), the higher the centrality in the network and, presumably, the more significant the power of intermediation and influence on the decision ( Marques, Bichir, Moya, 2014 ______.; Bichir, R.; Moya, E. (2014). Notas sobre el análisis de redes sociales en Brasil. REDES - Revista Hispana para el Análisis de Redes Sociales, 25(1). ; Ferreira & Vitorino Filho, 2010 Ferreira, T.; Vitorino Filho,V. (2010). Teoria de redes: uma abordagem social. Revista Conteúdo, Capivari, 1 (3), jan./jul. ; Lopes & Baldi, 2009 Lopes, F. D.; Baldi, M. (2009). Redes como perspectiva de análise e como estrutura de governança. RAP - Revista de Administração Pública (Impresso), 43, 1007-1035. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-76122009000500003 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-7612200900... ; Lavalle, Castello & Bichir, 2007 Lavalle, A. G.; Castello, G.; Bichir, R. M. (2007). Protagonistas na sociedade civil: redes e centralidades de organizações civis em São Paulo. Dados [online], 50 (3), 465-498. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0011-52582007000300002 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0011-5258200700... ; Marques, 2000).

The study object of these analyses is the participation spaces projected by the tourism policies designed as of 1994. The PNMT incessantly encouraged the creation of municipal tourism councils in almost all the Brazilian cities involved in the program, while the 2007-2010 National Tourism Plan (PNT) reinforced the need for their strengthening. Following the guidance of the 2003-2007 PNT and that of PRT, in 2003, the state of Paraiba begins the mobilization among local, state, and non-state organizations, at state and municipal le-vels, to make Northeast Brazil a strong tourism destination. The targeted spaces of participation in this study are: the Conselho Municipal de Turismo de João Pessoa - CONDETUR (Paraiba State Council for Tourism Development), the Conselho Municipal de Turismo de João Pessoa - COMTUR/JP (Joao Pessoa Municipal Tourism Council), the Grupo Gestor dos 65 Destinos Indutores do Turismo Regional - GG65 (Managing Group of the 65-Regional Tourism-inducing Destinations), and the Fórum de Turismo da Região Turística do Litoral da Paraíba (Coastal Tourism Forum of Paraiba Tourism Region).

The documentary research investigated, for the first time, the minutes, and statutes of all the spaces, formally institutionalized and based in the municipality of João Pessoa, capital of Paraiba State. Based on the collected data, we were able to identify the network actors and to outline the local tourism organizational field. The minutes are from the meetings carried out between 2009 and 2011, the period of major effervescence for the establishment and maintenance of the spaces.

With the definition of the network central actors, we proceeded with the interviews of nine representatives of the private sector, two of the public power, and another of the third sector. The meetings took place in two moments: the first one in 2012, during the identification of the actors, and the other in 2017 in face of the new PRT guidelines and the CONDETUR performance. The analysis of data obtained in the literature and documentary survey, and the interviews sought to monitor the progress and dynamics of the participation spaces, covering a period of 13 years, from 2003 through 2016.

Thus, in brief, we present firstly an overview of the Brazilian tourism policies since the 1990s when a promise of a new governance pact based upon the precepts of a participative democracy was put forward. After, we discuss the concept of institution and the complementary perspectives of institutional and network analysis. To continue with the analysis, there is also a brief panorama of the institutional context within which the network of public policies for tourism in the territory of Paraiba is inserted. This allows delimiting and analy-zing the local tourism organizational field, as well as contributions to the intended institutional changes: a new governance.

2 BRAZILIAN TOURISM POLICIES AND THE POSSIBILITY OF A NEW GOVERNANCE

To integrate the country into the international tourism market - concomitantly with the strong tourism discourse as a local and sustainable development factor - is a direction present in the federal government’s actions to stimulate this activity. These actions deal in giving more quality to the local and regional tourism product, in diversifying the offer and structuring the tourism destinations, in widening and training the workforce, in increasing the competitive insertion of the tourism product into the international market and the consumption of the tourism product in the domestic market and, finally, in increasing the length of stay and tourist expenditure in the destinations.

To attain such targets, as from 1990, several programs of action [such as the National Program for Tourism Municipalization - PNMT (1994-2002), the Northeast Tourism Development Program - PRODETUR/NE (1992-2013), the NATIONAL PRODETUR (2008-), and the Program for Tourism Regionalization - Brazilian Routes - PRT (2003/2013- ), the last two ones still in force] have been elaborated. In all these policies, in addition to the praise of tourism, there are formulas to try to encourage political and management capacity, networking, and ways of valuing the human capital. These are topics aimed at strengthening the political and social acceptance, consubstantiated as new governance expressed in the decentralizing character of the implementation structures, in which these new institutional arrangements are established with the participation of several segments of society.

The arrangements must be essentially participative and structured to allow a better performance of the network of organizations, either public and private ones, in the conduct of the national and sub-national policies ( Sipioni, Zorzal & Silva, 2013 Sipioni, M. E.; Zorzal e Silva, M. (2013). Reflexões e interpretações sobre a participação e a representação em Conselhos Gestores de Políticas Públicas. Revista de Sociologia e Política, 21(46), 147-158. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-44782013000200009 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-4478201300... ). Several participation spaces appeared after such guidelines: i) the Regional Governance Instances, also called Regional Forums, which are regional arenas that congregate representatives of various municipalities; ii) the Management Group of the 65-Regional Tourism-inducing Destinations, mainly composed by representatives of the private sector that act in the capitals; iii) the State Tourism Councils, and iv) the Municipal Tourism Councils that gather together representatives of the tourism sector - actuating respectively at state and municipality levels - and result from PNT guidelines since 2003. The two first mentioned spaces were created under PRT guidance.

This very conception is also reproduced by the norms of governmental bodies in the three levels of power - federal, state, and municipal. Despite having no political-administrative hierarchy among them ( Avelar & Cintra, 2007 Avelar, L. M.; Cintra, A. O. (Org.). (2007). Sistema político brasileiro: uma introdução. São Paulo: Rio de Janeiro: UNESP/Konrad-Adenauer. ), the national tourism policies presented by the Ministry of Tourism - MTUR attribute the responsibility of their implementation to state and municipal bodies, and to part of society, that adjust them to local needs or peculiarities.

In face of this governance structure, we observe that the decision to go ahead with federal programs, such as PRT, does not fit in the space they were elaborated to, but to that one of the public and private organizations, which are inserted in states and municipalities and have specific political and social dynamics. The effectiveness of the policy depends on the prominence of these actors and on their capacity for action: a capacity that is subject to the positioning of these actors in the web of relationships established by the go-vernance structure adopted for the PRT development in each place.

This web, woven by the new arrangements projected by the national programs, is the environment within which these institutional changes take place. In this sense, we also understand that these spaces - expressed by the Committees, Forums, Councils, and Managing Groups - can establish, from this decentralizing structure and shared practices, a possibility of making the relationships between state, market, and civil society more effective and helpful toward tourism growth in Brazil. However, changes are slow and tied up to constraints that are not always considered, hence the need of our appealing to the new institutional analysis, to try to understand the behavior and political decisions inserted in the structures of these new arrangements and brought in by tourism policies.

3 THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF NEW INSTITUTIONALISM TO UNDERSTAND INSTITUTIONAL CHANGES

To understand how institutions change we need to inquire: what are institutions? What do they exist for? How do they get formed and change? What impact do they have, or not, on the behavior of actors in the conduction of the political process? The fact is that - in the literature - it is recurrent to state that institutions matter ( DiMaggio & Powell, 1991 DiMaggio, P. J.; Powell, W. (eds.). (1991). Introduction. The new institutionalism in organizational analysis. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. ; Peters, 2003 _______. (2003). El nuevo institucionalismo: la teoría institucional en ciencia política. Barcelona: Gedisa. ; Peres, 2008 Peres, S. P. (2008) Comportamento ou instituições? A evolução histórica do neo-institucionalismo da ciência política. Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais, 23 (68), 53-71. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-69092008000300005 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-6909200800... ; Hall & Taylor, 1996 Hall, P. A.; Taylor, R. (1996). Political science and the three new institutionalism. Political Studies, 44 (5), 936-957. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1996.tb00343.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1996... ; Marques, 2000 _____. (2000). Estado e redes sociais: permeabilidade e coesão nas políticas urbanas do Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro: Revan; São Paulo: Fapesp. ) and “must be considered as the focus of the analysis of political and social processes” (Marques, 1997, p. 75).

Seen as mediators between social structures and individuals’ behaviors, institutions are a useful field of analysis, in the attempt to search for explanation on how individuals place and organize themselves in society to produce political decisions ( Draibe, 2014 Draibe, S. (2014). Policy analysis in Brazil: emergence and institutionalization. Brazilian Political Science Review, 8(2), 118-122. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-38212014000100014 https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-38212014000... ; Carvalho, Vieira & Silva, 2012 Carvalho, A. C.; Vieira, M.; Silva, S. (2012). A trajetória conservadora da teoria institucional. Gestão Organizacional, 10, 469-496. ; Théret, 2013). In this context, we can state that the studies on the institutional phenomena go necessarily through what is known as new institutionalism. Despite current research on the political phenomenon - by political scientists - converge on this new model, the new institutionalism shows some features or versions not always convergent ( Peres, 2008 Peres, S. P. (2008) Comportamento ou instituições? A evolução histórica do neo-institucionalismo da ciência política. Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais, 23 (68), 53-71. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-69092008000300005 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-6909200800... ). And, in face of the myriad of studies that call themselves so, it is timely to ask: what is it that makes a given feature of the social and political activity to be institutional?

The answer assumes that - despite differences of focus - there are some basic elements common to all approaches. According to Peters (2003 _______. (2003). El nuevo institucionalismo: la teoría institucional en ciencia política. Barcelona: Gedisa. ), an important element to consider is that - in a way - an institution is a structural feature of society and/or a form of government, either formal or informal. The other three basic elements are: stability in time; it affects the individual behavior by restricting the behavior of its members; and, there must be certain shared values among members of an institution.

Although there are similarities and divergences in how each focus and author define institution, how they perceive its formation, change, and institutional design, as well as the interactions between institutions and individuals in the political process, many of the authors hereby cited only make the distinction between rational choice neo-institutionalism and the remaining approaches by their analytical convergences, among these the sociological new institutionalism.

The main distinction of the first in relation to the remaining ones is that the basic characteristic of the neo-institutional focus consists in considering that individuals behave in an entirely utilitarian mode so as to maximize personal benefits, which can be effectively achieved through institutions, even if these push them into following behaviors. Under this viewpoint, the individuals rationally choose to be constrained (up to a certain level) by their affiliation to institutions, may this be voluntarily or not.

For rational new institutionalism, the individuals’ preferences are exogenous as regards the process of decision; because it considers that preferences are already given and guided toward maximizing personal benefits. Assuming the behavioral presupposition, to understand the roots of such preferences is of little or no interest in this approach: the emphasis is on incentives and rules that define the field of possibilities where individuals seek to maximize their preferences ( Czernek, 2013 Czernek, Katarzyna (2013). Determinants of cooperation in a tourist region. Annals of Tourism Research, 40, 83-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.09.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.09... ; Granovetter, 1985 Granovetter, M. (1985). Economic action and social structure: the problem of embeddedness. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 481-510. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/228311 https://doi.org/10.1086/228311... ; Peters, 2003 _______. (2003). El nuevo institucionalismo: la teoría institucional en ciencia política. Barcelona: Gedisa. ; Hall & Taylor, 1996 Hall, P. A.; Taylor, R. (1996). Political science and the three new institutionalism. Political Studies, 44 (5), 936-957. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1996.tb00343.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1996... ; Théret, 2003 Théret, B. (2003). As instituições entre as estruturas e as ações. Lua Nova: Revista de cultura e política, 58, 225-252. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-64452003000100011 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-6445200300... ).

Therefore, in the rational choice approach, institutions are specifically defined by a set of rules that shapes individuals’ behaviors, however, individuals react rationally to incentives and restrictions established by these rules. According to Peres (2008 Peres, S. P. (2008) Comportamento ou instituições? A evolução histórica do neo-institucionalismo da ciência política. Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais, 23 (68), 53-71. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-69092008000300005 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-6909200800... ), neither socialization nor the formation of the preferences appear to be relevant.

What separates this study from the analytical approach is the divergence between structural sociology (to which the analysis of social networks is aggregated) and the theory of rational choice as regards the determinants of behavior. The first one “does not involve the inherent premises as to the rationality of human agents. (…) That is, the formation of preferences is seen as something to be explained” ( Mizruchi, 2006 Mizruchi, M. (2006). Análise de redes sociais: avanços recentes e controvérsias atuais. RAE - Revista de Administração de Empresas, 46(3). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-75902006000300013 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-7590200600... , p. 79), considering the effects of the social relations on individual or group behavior. Thus, by setting the endogenous behavioral presupposition aside, the rational choice perspective would be of little value to the objectives of this article, since the characteristics of these behaviors are fundamental to the process of decision inherent to the proposed and encouraged institutional arrangements by the official policies of tourism in Brazil.

4 SOCIOLOGICAL INSTITUTIONALISM, THE ORGANIZATIONAL FIELD AND ISOMORPHISM

Unlike rational choice institutionalism, sociological institutionalism stands out for the broad understanding of institutions, which “include not just formal rules, procedures or norms, but the symbol systems, the cognitive scripts, and moral templates that provide the ‘frames of meaning’ guiding human action” ( Hall & Taylor, 1996 Hall, P. A.; Taylor, R. (1996). Political science and the three new institutionalism. Political Studies, 44 (5), 936-957. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1996.tb00343.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1996... , p. 209). In these terms, sociological institutionalism “emphasize the way in which institutions influence behavior by providing the cognitive scripts, categories, and models that are indispensable for action” (id., p. 210), and on the way individuals most often make use of and/or accept to interpret the norms, and values of their organizations. In both empirical and theoretical terms, we hereby understand that it is the process of socialization that conditions individuals’ behavior in the institutional environment. Thus, the preferences are endogenous - a product of this process.

Within the perspectives introduced by sociological institutionalism, the contributions of Meyer and Rowan (1977 Meyer, J. W.; Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), 340-363. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/226550 https://doi.org/10.1086/226550... ) and DiMaggio and Powell (1983 DiMaggio P. J.; Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48 (2), 147-160. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101 https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101... ) appear to be more suitable to the objectives of this article, since the concept of institution emphasizes “the realities of symbolic nature that legitimate and enable the arrangements and rules of organizational behavior, providing a sense of order to members’ daily activities” ( Prates, 2000 Prates, A. A. (2000). Organização e instituição no novo institucionalismo. Teoria & Sociedade, 5, 123-146. , p. 139).

Thus, instead of looking for efficiency within its technical environment, guided by a bureaucratic rationality to supply solutions to well-defined problems, organizations also look for legitimacy from external or institutional environment. That is, modern organizations look like one another, not because they are necessarily more efficient, but because the need of legitimacy also demands this from them.

Survival of organizations relates to the assessment that society makes of them, even if their structures do not actually work. Because, we consider not only the performance, but also conformity with institutional requirements (values) supported by public opinion, opinion-makers, social prestige, laws, among other elements of the social reality. These are manifestations of strong institutional rules, which work like myths that are rationalized by organizations and are determinant for survival.

According to Meyer and Rowan (1977 Meyer, J. W.; Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), 340-363. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/226550 https://doi.org/10.1086/226550... ), we can observe three specific processes of organizational structure that generate rationalized myths: i) elaboration of relational networks - the more dense and interconnected, the more rationalized myths arise; ii) the degree of collective organization of the environment - the stronger the legal order, the greater the extent to which rules and rationalized procedures become institutional requirements; and iii) leadership efforts of local organizations - which are frequently adjusted to their organizational contexts, but also play an active role in the conformation of this context through which - when po-werful - attempt to force their immediate relationship networks to adjust to their patterns of relationships. In this way, organizations adopt specific structural arrangements that have acquired social meaning, though, many a time, they do not fulfill the technical requirements of the organizational environment.

Thus, the search for legitimacy leads to similar organizational practices, defined as isomorphism, in which the organizational characteristics are modified toward a growing compatibility with features of the environment. According to Machado-da-Silva and Gonçalves (2007 Machado-da-Silva, C. L.; Gonçalves, S. A. (2007). Nota Técnica: A Teoria Institucional. In: Stewart Clegg et al.; Miguel Pinto Caldas et al. (Orgs.). Handbook de Estudos Organizacionais: modelos de análise e novas questões em estudos organizacionais. São Paulo: Atlas, 1, 220-226. ), the isomorphic mechanisms - based on the different types of existing links between institutional environment and Scott’s (1999 Scott, W. R. (1999). Retomando los argumentos institucionales. In: Powell, W. & DiMaggio, P. (Orgs.) El nuevo institucionalismo en el análisis organizacional. México D. F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 217-236. ) organizational structures - allow to understand the nature of the influence of the environment on the dynamics of institutional change.

The isomorphic behavior adopted by organizations can be developed, as pointed out by DiMaggio and Powell (1983 DiMaggio P. J.; Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48 (2), 147-160. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101 https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101... ), from the compulsory, mimetic, and normative mechanisms. Compulsory isomorphism occurs when there are formal and informal pressures exercised by the state, market, and/or society, forcing organizations to adopt similar strategies, procedures, and techniques. This type of isomorphism spreads out by means of law enforcement, governmental determinations, inter-organizational power games, finally, factors that lead to interdependence.

The mimetic isomorphism occurs throughout the diffusion of experiences and successful organizational mo-dels, which, in an environment of uncertainty, are adopted by other organizations that actuate in their specific environment. And finally, normative isomorphism mainly refers to professionalization. This mechanism encompasses certain patterns and techniques considered to be more efficient and up-to-date by the professional community. The three mechanisms are present in isomorphism processes, varying only the degree of performance and mutually reinforcing each other.

According to DiMaggio and Powell (1983 DiMaggio P. J.; Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48 (2), 147-160. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101 https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101... ), the isomorphic processes result from the structuring of organizational fields, mostly assisted by the state and professions. We understand organizational field to be the group of organizations that constitutes a recognized area of the institutional life, which - in a more specific way - includes:

un grupo de organizaciones que crean productos y servicios similares, pero incluyen también a los socios determinante para sus intercambios, las fuentes de financiamiento, los grupos reguladores, la asociaciones profesionales y comerciales y otras fuentes de influencia normativa o cognoscitiva, las relaciones no locales y locales, los vínculos verticales y horizontales y las influencias culturales y políticas, así como los intercambios técnicos, están incluidas en el campo organizacional de fuerzas que se consideran pertinentes ( Scott, 1999 Scott, W. R. (1999). Retomando los argumentos institucionales. In: Powell, W. & DiMaggio, P. (Orgs.) El nuevo institucionalismo en el análisis organizacional. México D. F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 217-236. , p. 227).

In its initial stage, the organizational field is composed of isolated and specialized organizations and, as time goes by, the field begins to be structured and the organizations begin to recognize the importance of each other, narrowing relationships and, consequently, increasing the interaction. Once established, the isomorphism grows because of the inter-organizational relationships of cooperation and competition ( DiMaggio & Powell, 1983 DiMaggio P. J.; Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48 (2), 147-160. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101 https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101... ; Holanda, 2003 Holanda, L. A. (2003). Formação e institucionalização do campo organizacional de turismo em Recife - PE. Recife: Universidade Federal de Pernambuco. (Dissertação de mestrado.) ).

As far as the organizational field is concerned, the isomorphic process is bigger and faster: i) the more the field depends on a single resource; ii) the bigger the field of interaction with the state; iii) the smaller the organization-model number; iv) the bigger the technological uncertainty; v) the bigger the professionalism within the group. We can say the two first ones are related with compulsory isomorphism, the third and fourth ones refer to the mimetic isomorphism and the two last ones to normative isomorphism ( DiMaggio & Powell, 1983 DiMaggio P. J.; Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48 (2), 147-160. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101 https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101... ).

Scott (1999 Scott, W. R. (1999). Retomando los argumentos institucionales. In: Powell, W. & DiMaggio, P. (Orgs.) El nuevo institucionalismo en el análisis organizacional. México D. F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 217-236. ) suggests a few “different types of environmental forces” that affect organizations and institutional change dynamics, as a way to refine the indicators of institutional changes and help to better understand isomorphic processes.

The characteristics of the two first mechanisms (Frame 1) are described in a context wherein an organizational field contains environmental agents that are strong enough to impose structural forms on subordinated organizations. These are processes which take place by “imposition” and “authorization”. In the remaining mechanisms, the organizational field does not introduce agents with power and authority on local organizational forms.

Another important issue we want to emphasize is that, despite the isomorphic actions, the organizations do not become all alike because - by having several interpretative schemes and specific power relations - they respond differently. So, in observing the emphasis on the power asymmetry of the organizations associated to the running and development of the institutions, it is important to highlight how institutional analyses situate the state role in this process. In these analyses, the state is neither the central actor (criticism of the Marxist model) nor a neutral agent arbitrating these competing interests (criticism of the pluralist model). Here are Marques’ explanations:

State autonomy is not a structural feature of the capitalist state that can be a priori defined, (…) it varies from case to case. This because the autonomy is defined in each historical situation (…) that surrounds the state autonomous actions by the strategies of the various actors and the changes implemented by the state itself in the administrative organization and coercion. The affirmation of state autonomy does not presuppose the rationality of the state as an actor, but just its non-subordination to interests present in society ( Marques, 1997 Marques, E. C. (1997). Notas críticas à literatura sobre Estado, políticas estatais e atores políticos. BIB. Revista Brasileira de Informação Bibliográfica em Ciências Sociais, 43. , pp. 80-81).

Thumbnail Frame 1 Links between institutional environments and organizational structures

This way, the effectiveness of the policies depends on the actors’ strategies, inside and outside the state. The analyses related with the political and social processes are not solely restricted to the observation of state strategies, but include the correlation of power (resources and positions) of state and non-state actors within these processes. Therefore, as per the SNA perspective, a priori attributes of the actors do not matter, but rather the characteristics of the relationships which link and position them within the political process ( Sañudo, 2015 Sañudo, J. E. P. (2015). 7 lecturas para iniciarse en análisis de redes sociales. Una selección de REDES. REDES - Revista Hispana para el Análisis de Redes Sociales, 26(1). ; Marques et al., 2014 ______.; Bichir, R.; Moya, E. (2014). Notas sobre el análisis de redes sociales en Brasil. REDES - Revista Hispana para el Análisis de Redes Sociales, 25(1). ). Thus, SNA represents the more dynamic conception of the social action by emphasizing the social/institutional relationships established on the borders of the political public networks and, in the case of this article, woven by the spaces of participation established by the federal programs of tourism in Brazil.

The network formed by these spaces, which delimits the organizational field of the tourism activity in Paraiba, represents the forms of articulation among government agencies, private organizations, or groups that allow them to face social problems and implement the desired actions. They are like political structures, represen-ting a new form of governance network ( Nunkoo, 2017 Nunkoo, R. (2017). Governance and sustainable tourism: What is the role of trust, power and social capital? Journal of Destination Marketing & Management. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2017.10.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2017.10.0... ; Gonzalez, 2014 González, M. V. P. (2014). Gobernanza turística: ¿Políticas públicas innovadoras o retórica banal? Caderno Virtual de Turismo. Edição especial: Hospitalidade e políticas públicas em turismo, 14(1), 9-22. ; Hall, 2011 Hall, C. M. (2011). Typology of governance and its implications for tourism policy analysis. Journal of sustainable tourism, 19(4-5), 437-57. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2011.570346 https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2011.57... Schneider, 2005 Schneider, V. (2005). Redes de políticas públicas e a condução de sociedades complexas. Civitas - Revista de Ciências Sociais, 5(1). ).

5 PUBLIC POLICY NETWORK AND THE CONSTITUTION OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL FIELD OF TOURISM IN PARAIBA

To understand how institutions constraint behaviors in order to have them adjusted to the legitimacy of their actions, as well as the participation, we need to identify the main actors and the role they play in the arrangements generated in the implementation process of the Program for Tourism Regionalization - PRT in Paraiba.

The delimitation of the network ( Figure 1 ) and the organizational field of the local tourism ( Figure 2 ) led to the analysis of the meeting minutes: the Paraiba State Council for Tourism Development - CONDETUR between the years 2003 through 2011; the João Pessoa Municipal Tourism Council - COMTUR; the Coastal Tourism Forum, representing one of the Regional Governance Instances of PRT in Paraiba; and the Management Group of the 65-Regional Tourism-inducing Destinations - GG65 DI. Excepting CONDETUR, the analyzed records of the other three participation spaces have to do with the meetings carried out between the years 2009 through 2011, period of their establishment.

The registration of the actors’ presence and meeting dates were inputs to the analysis of networks and ori-ginated the presented sociograms. We used Unicet6 software for Windows to calculate centrality measures and Netdraw for the sociograms ( Quiroga, 2006 Quiroga, Á. (2006). El análisis de redes sociocéntricas con Unicinet 6 y Netdraw. In: Molina, José Luis. Talleres de autoformacióm con programas de análisis de redes sociales. Barcelona: Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, Server de publicaciones. 23-55. ; Borgatti, Everett & Freeman, 2002 Borgatti, S. P.; Everett, M. G; Freeman, L. C. (2002). Ucinet 6 for Windows: Software for social network analysis. Harvard: Analytic Technologies. ). The sociograms (Fi-gures 1 and 2) were produced by mathematical treatment and were carried out over incidence and adjacency matrices ( Scott, 2005 Scott, J. (2005). Social network analysis. London: SAGE. ; Hanneman, 2001 Hanneman, R. A. (2001). Introducción a los métodos del análisis de redes sociales. Disponível em: <http://revista-redes.rediris.es/webredes/textos/cap8.pdf> Acesso em: 15 abr. 2016. http://revista-redes.rediris.es/webredes... ).

The first sociogram ( Figure 1 ) was obtained through the incidence matrix (also called rectangular, affiliation or two-mode) in which the lines and columns refer to the actor and affiliation relationships, wherein the organizations are the actors in the Paraiba Tourism Sector and the spaces of participation are the formally institutionalized affiliation (CONDETUR, COMTUR, Fórum do Litoral [Coastal Forum] and GG65). The analysis of the meetings minutes of all the studied spaces led to the making of a single list of state and non-state organizations - in the three government levels - that were at the meetings. The lines represent the relationships among the actors (nodes) in the same institutional environment, constituted by the four spaces of participation.

Figure 1 Sociogram of the Paraiba public tourism policies network (2009-2011)

The sociogram shows the central actors, since they are present in - at least - three spaces of participation. These are positioned in the sociogram diagonal, starting with the Tourism Guide Union - SINGTUR, the Brazilian Association of Tourism Journalists - ABRAJET, the João Pessoa Municipal Tourism Secretariat - SETUR, the Brazilian Association of Bars & Restaurants - ABRASEL, the Union of Hotels, Restaurants, Bars and Si-milar Entities - SHRBS, João Pessoa Convention and Visitors Bureau - JPCVB, the Brazilian Hotel Industry Association - ABIH, the Brazilian Association of Travel Agencies - ABAV, Secretariat of Tourism and Economic Growth - SETDE, and the Brazilian Service Support for Micro and Small Enterprises - SEBRAE. All these entities are exclusively from Paraiba or its division or representation in Paraiba. It also includes the Federal University of Paraiba - UFPB, the Brazilian Association of Bachelors in Tourism - ABBTUR, and the Bank of Northeast Brazil - BNB, which are located on the extreme diagonal, also related with the three spaces of participation.

All these organizations representatives were interviewed in two moments (2011 and 2017) and provided precious information on the political actions developed between 2003 and 2016. The narratives showed the importance the trade and public sector give to the model of participative management that the tourism policies and PRT adopt. Yet, many complaints still hover over the program methodology of the federal government and disseminated by the state managing personnel among the municipalities.

The problems pointed out by the participants were related with: i) the Coastal Forum’s termination, in 2012, which failed to overcome the lack of material and financial resources reported in several studies (Nóbrega & Figueiredo, 2014; Trentin, 2016 Trentin, F. (2016). Governança turística em destinos brasileiros: comparação entre Armação dos Búzios/RJ, Paraty/RJ e Bonito/MS. PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 14(3), 645-658. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25145/j.pasos.2016.14.042 https://doi.org/10.25145/j.pasos.2016.14... ) that happened in other instances of the PRT governance; ii) the scandals on the bad use of the MTUR resources, which started in 2011 and shook the relationships between gover-nment and non-governmental entities; iii) the end of the GG65 activities due to the federal-level deactivation of 65-Regional Tourism-inducing Destinations Project, which included a large number of market-representing organizations; and iv) the imposition of a new categorizing methodology of the municipalities from the PRT re-organization at national level, between the years 2013 through 2015. Overall, these factors discouraged post-2012 participation.

The analyses also indicate that the same organizations that had an advantageous and central position in the network presented up to 2011 still detain power and influence on the political decisions about tourism in Paraiba State. Until completion of this research in 2017, CONDETUR was the main space of participation directing state tourism. Further to the network central actors, the State Council begins to aggregate a few actors that were linked to the extinguished spaces. Yet, the representatives of the Regional Tourism Forums (Regional Instances of the PRT Governance) that aggregate city councils, still struggle for a counselor position officially instituted by the state government.

Observed in the analyzed spaces, the experience of the new arrangements is an indicator for the institutional processes of change and consolidates the maintenance of these organization forms, which contributed to the practice of the participative processes. However, the effectiveness of this network goes through the understanding that the bigger the possibility of disseminating the information and the resources by means of the relationships or links amid the actors inside the network, the bigger the chances to institute these spaces and good governance practices they bring in within themselves.

We also understand that, in this network analysis, a presupposition - which must be taken into account - is that not only the rationality of these spaces efficiency and their arrangements support, reproduce themselves, and are legitimated, but also because these are shaped by institutional requirements arising from the public opinion, social prestige, and laws, among other elements of the social reality, which lead them to change and/or maintenance.

To be participative is to be democratic and - in the case under analysis - the institutional maintenance or change is stimulated by the formal rituals (rules) of participation spaces, which are seen as ceremonies that strengthen the participative and decentralized practices, understood as rationalized myths, which has reinforced the legitimacy of organizations thereby present as well as that of the maintained arrangements, des- pite the change in their momentary contours.

This is possible because, since 2009, networks are more interconnected and possess a strong legal framework and leaderships such as SETDE and CONDETUR itself, while collegiate organ aggregating the more central actors of the private sector. These play an active role in the conformation of this context, mainly when subjected to MTUR guidelines, which also fall upon local government bodies to adapt themselves to the structure of their arrangements and their relationship patterns. And it is inside these dynamics that the rules and rationalized procedures involved in the isomorphic processes are increasingly converted into institutional requirements.

Therefore, participation is the main institutional requirement even if based on imposition, authorization, and inducement of environmental mechanisms, as proposed by Scott (1999 Scott, W. R. (1999). Retomando los argumentos institucionales. In: Powell, W. & DiMaggio, P. (Orgs.) El nuevo institucionalismo en el análisis organizacional. México D. F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 217-236. ), on which the network was esta-blished and still holds it to today’s date.

These dynamics can also be studied out as per institutionalization of the organizational field, wherein the organizations belonging to this network are inserted, that becomes structured as the organizations acknowledge one another’s importance, bringing the relationships closer and, consequently, increasing the interaction that can be perceived by both in the network and in interviews with the actors.

Thus, we can state that the organizational tourism field in Paraiba, represented by the sociogram in Figure 2 , has been institutionalized, allowing the isomorphic processes to be more quickly reproduced, either by coo-peration and/or inter-organizational competition.

Figure 2 Organizational field of the Paraiba tourism sector

This sociogram was made from the adjacency matrix (one-mode) with data contained in the incidence matrix (two-mode), which generated the sociogram in Figure 1 . This adjacency or square matrix identifies the relationships established among actors from its presence in the analyzed spaces of participation and has served, more specifically, to determine the measures of centrality that indicate which are the most influent organizations in the field. Furthermore, they show a pattern of relationships characterized by the power asymmetry between state and non-state organizations in the Paraiba tourism planning process. This asymmetry is re-presented by actors who have a higher degree of centrality in the network, identified proportionally in the sociogram by the size of the nodes.

In the delimited organizational field, the most intense isomorphic processes are the mandatory ones, since the arrangement between organizations strongly depends on public sector resources, as is the case of those from SETDE and SETUR, which generate a strong interaction with the state. And, in a smaller scale, we also notice mimetic reproduction, considering the field structuring from the professionalism of the private sector organizations found within it, represented by the nine green nodes in the field center.

This conclusion is also in accordance with the results of Scott’s studies (1999 Scott, W. R. (1999). Retomando los argumentos institucionales. In: Powell, W. & DiMaggio, P. (Orgs.) El nuevo institucionalismo en el análisis organizacional. México D. F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 217-236. ), in which the analysis searches for identifying the most specific mechanisms that cast this isomorphism, such as that of imposition, authorization, and inducement.

Very similar to mandatory isomorphism, the first one happens when changes occur by law enforcement. In the second one, the changes are voluntarily supported by local organizations, which provides the one demanding of such norms with the legitimacy to exercise the power. Finally, inducement mechanisms offer incentives to organizations willing to adjust to their conditions.

Overall, we have noticed that all three mechanisms - which try to explain the different aspects of how institutional changes happen within an organizational field - are present in the way organizations and relationships unfolded throughout time to today’s configuration of the Paraiba tourism organizational field.

6 FINAL REMARKS

The support that the MTUR promised to the states and municipalities has coincidently cooled down when the federal government started to become politically unstable, in 2017, and the Brazilian economy presented the first signs of the economic crisis, which would soon show up with unseen strength. This led to the dismantlement of some spaces of participation, as was the case of the Joao Pessoa Management Group of the 65-Regional Tourism-inducing Destinations and the Coastline Tourism Forum, that stopped receiving funds and expertise to continue some PRT actions in Paraiba. The actors who participated in these spaces are still looking to be formally aggregated to CONDETUR, mainly the city halls via representation of the new regional governance instances in the Council, also gathering together the Forums actuating in the state.

The arising of these spaces of participation and the constituted relationships among their members, including those resulting from the imposition of their institutionalization, has defined the organizational field of tourism in Paraiba, which is achieved by the construction and maintenance of a new governance. We cannot state whether the management will be a democratic fact, but we can infer that these spaces (instituted by the post-2012 tourism policies and the reflection of the institutional arrangement) contributed to a participation exercise and are able to change the local and regional situation. Till the end of 2017, CONDETUR was strengthened, while concentrating the main actors contained in the delimited organizational field in the same space of participation, which gives it more legitimacy.

The trend is that the actors’ behavior changes increasingly from the acceptance and assimilation of the norms of behavior supporting the arrangements. In the established network, we observe that these arrangements are forced into behaving as expected by the other members, in a participative and engaged way. The institutional link built up among members (by means of participation and encounters in meetings) has given rise to the establishment of other links, such as friendship and work ties. And, together, these links have reinforced a more proactive behavior.

In this sense, we observed that the more cohesive the network formed by these links is, the more powerful the organizations are in satisfying their interests - not only to their own advantage, but in the belief that everyone is benefitted when working in cooperation. This notion stops being an empty discourse to become the responsibility of all actors that, as a part of the network, are accountable for and evaluated, because the social order is to be proactive and efficient.

In recent years, a few manifested demands start to become a reality, as is the construction of the modern Paraiba Convention Center (already functioning in a partial but increasing manner) and the tourism interio-rizing in the state, which strengthens the actors’ sense of prominence, thus generating a virtuous circle and accomplishing what is expected from these spaces: instituting values and norms to strengthen the direction of this new governance.

From the institutional and relational analyses developed in this article, we can conclusively state that the new arrangements - outlined by the creation of various participation spaces - affect the actions and strategies of local actors. In practical terms, the governance structure (established by tourism policies) has allowed the strengthening of the tourism sector in Paraiba, even if following guidelines from other spheres. Yet, it is still early to assess if these spaces do produce significant institutional changes to deepen the actual participative, legitimate, and more efficient processes. After all, formal institutions are more open to change than informal institutions, based on social practices and values which, by being dynamic, will always require new studies to fit in the new realities.

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• Publication in this collection 15 Apr 2019
• Date of issue Jan-Apr 2019
• Received 03 Mar 2018
• Accepted 13 Aug 2018

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Figure 1   Sociogram of the Paraiba public tourism policies network (2009-2011)

Figure 2   Organizational field of the Paraiba tourism sector

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Sustainable Tourism in Brazil: Faxinal and Superagui Case Studies

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• Jasmine Cardozo Moreira 4 ,
• Robert C. Burns 5 &
• Valéria de Meira Albach 4  

Part of the book series: Environmental Challenges and Solutions ((ECAS,volume 2))

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The tourism experience in Brazil is distinctive in many ways. In this chapter we discuss two case studies in two very different settings, but both located in the southeastern Brazil state of Paraná. Both emphasize the need for economic benefit to communities relying on tourism. The first focuses on the Faxinal and its contribution as a micro level sustainable tourism location. The second study involves the island residents near Superagui National park. This ecotourism setting includes extremely rare species and some limited economic impacts. Both case studies emphasize the importance of managing ecosystems and engaging local communities.

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Moreira, J.C., Burns, R.C., de Meira Albach, V. (2016). Sustainable Tourism in Brazil: Faxinal and Superagui Case Studies. In: McCool, S., Bosak, K. (eds) Reframing Sustainable Tourism. Environmental Challenges and Solutions, vol 2. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-7209-9_12

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